title html

oCloq Pd
 Cp HdD D ok  @ Pd kV Mop Cp rV F
pOF  pOF oDFok CpkB lCoDzPC PC vD@v
.lCkCk DWC CCp TdDG  MDD ,Pd 
OzCk VoDh eN CV pOF  ioDN D@ p@S@C ok @a@A
,DDz ,pF joDNC iF ok ,PvC kF oCloq DO@@d
ok Co DkA oC Dq Cp  v ,CoNCpKC ,Dp ,Cpwh
kp pF Dw DD  DDq pOF ok pk MoDGF .lCOzCk Pvk
OGC .lCkFoCkohpF pOF Mol  oq qC  lCkp Pd
F DC ,OzCk lF GV pOF DDd Mol@ ,Cl@O@FC @C@V ok
Mol   Mol ,DMol G qC p@k D@@Nol@ ,X@ol@N
D x ,pOrC Mol ,Dd p F .PvC lz pD e ok O@
.PvC kp DA oDOhC HdD  kppF Dd Co Dw
lDF CoCloq  ClNol  p @C @Zp@C P@w@Ck l@D@F
w  Pw Cp lzDF OzCk P@d  P@@@D@d
,vDv v qC F  ,lzDF kp DF @ PdCp DF @ vD@@v
(1679 @ 1588) wC rFD  (1527B 1469) DDOC DD lD
DA a  l D DOwv lD Dw@@@ qC CoD@J 
Pd VN  rWN CpF  lCO@ @D@@i@v (1900B 1844)
o F .kF lCN Fh DrDO@vk Cl@oq  Cl@@@Nol@
,loClJ Mol FDN Co yqoC  Dw iv q P CN
PvC w  @ rFD S.PvC CoCloq Pd rWN  V@N
,DG DwC :l @ (1650 @ 1596) wCp@ MoD@k p@D@@
Dzkh G F DkA pC ,CpFDF ,PvCP p  hl@ok
pl oDqo qC oDk  lOC  D@V @F l@@z @O@zCn@C
lCi oCllJ F  DDwF DV rp DwlF loA@p@F
.l oD G Co kp DN lzDF OzCk kV D Mol lDF ,l@z
loCkohpF pOF Mol qC ,kp D F PGw  @D@w@ x@J
lN   qC lCN DCCpq ,loCk Co kp pF Pd Pd@
.l pV pl F DkA
CoCloq Pd VN  r@W@N Cp@F @ r@FD@ l@O@vC @C
 ,ivoDwF PvC iv ,lzDF lC@N@ @F@h @w@@O@w@
pOF Mol qC  Dw  PvC @C @D@@zC @p@O@e@C
k b  loCkpOF Op  hlok ll@p@@F
.lzDF Dd Dp pDv pF lDF PvC pNp  A  l PFDR
.koCl Dd P N rV,rFD iv F pOF OhCkpJ
iz l  (oNDOk) kClGOvC P@@d CoCl@p@
lD oD pv pF Ph Mol DC  G  p DF ZpC ,Dd
D  koCk d @ lzDF lrpF  OpnJ Co C kp F lzD@F
Pd ,D l F .l oDOo kp DF hCo G p@F  l@@
Co k Z F .koCl    qW rp  kClGO@vC
Co A  lzDF r kp   lzDF pGO DV  CpF kp@@
.loAok  F  lpnKF

kp  Ow Pd
CDV p CpF Pd kV  lCOzCk kDOC p@k D@w@
Cpq ,lzDF kp lDF Pd pC Dl@@O@ D@C koCk Mop@
Pvok ,CpFDF koCk oD  pv kp lq z  oC DF P@d
PDhk Od oC ok ,vCF  DOwkp@ @@ P@vC A
@p@@ D@@ @C .l@@@ p@@ D@@C  l@@zD@F @O@zCk
DOvDF D ok  PvC A l D F (oDwkp)vCpk
DF vCpk p DF  PvClJ OD  kF @V@N ko@
 Ow PDhk qC w qpC ,koCk MDN ,yCqp@C  l@l@V
vCpk Z pC @ lqk Od oC ok kp@ @@vC@F
lrpF  PvC EDiOC qC iv F @ Pw C rV rZ O@vCo
.kpDlD lz

kp  Ow Pd p pF DkCpC
 :kz koC DzC Ovk v on p pF  P CN@
F kp DOvCh vCp PvDOwOrJ dD qC DzC Ovk
DN qC F rZ r Co Pd l  lOw D OCl  d
p HDV qC ,MDzC qC pk Ovk .lCk kpD@O@vC@h
 d  ClvD  fD llO  PvC Cp DOwOrJ
OvCh DF DwF Z  PvC kp DOvCh Co  Pw @O@Cl@
DwC   lzDF OzCk MDD MpD DA PpSC D kp 
C lvD  fD  PCl  d  PvC C oCnD DDwC D
CpVC lDF r Pd l  ,Co kp DOvCh loCk o Co
 dA ok  PvC CDV lNkDv DV  lzDF PCl@  @d
DOwOrJ p v qC ,DzC Ovk v .lzDF D@d P@Cl@
ok C p DOwOrJp DF D p  kkp koC C
.DwC  lCk DO Clh Co D C  PvC C

koC OwOrJ DCp uDvC pF  DzC @O@w@i@(@C
oC ok kp Ow  pzDG PDhk CpF  PvC C kz@
Dd  lzDF OzCk p DNC pC p oDFok kp  lDF Od
 ok   ,PvC De F Hp pDNC Z d @ A
""  koCl DC DOVC oC qC pC  ok O@d @@@F o@C
 DO  Dp kDGN qC xJ Od lzDF C O DVkCp@C
.l ClJ p DNC  CCp MDSdDG
okD ,lFD  p CN Z  okD oDwF ko  ok pC
rp Co DV qD Ddp F  l F e  l a P@vC
 pFlN F qD ,PDv p  qo p D@O@VC o@C ok .koA@@p@F
ok  lzDF CpFDF pC .Pw  mDiNC pN  Ppl
ok  l N Hw DA qC  l kp  F @Vo ko@ p@
.lD lCh  oC  ,lzDF D CN ClJJ
Fh F ,DFC Dlk DF  MDC F VN DF , A iv DN
kV CC  CoA OhCCpF   Z  PDok CN@
 pFlN CN  PD lCi  DV kCpC  p DNC ,koCk
C p ok ,koCl  DC  kp rZ F Co DV oCkC
.CkCk PDo Od oC N F Mo
kCpC pOF Co aA  kp DOC kp PpSC Co F lDF oDZDF x@J
C ok .koAok  F PwCk GO llwJ  lpnJ @D@V
ok Di ?l PGN PpSC qC lDF PC k Z @F Mo@
p ?PvC rZD   oDwF PC  PpSC kClNOhC  koC
 DChpDF Dp C p  Pw qDvD kp O@vC@h
ok DG ?lzDG pAD ,PC Co CpZ ?Pw DV kCpC DC
ok kh d qC  l kp PpSCCo F PC ,koC Z
.l pp ,DOVC oC oCkC  pFlN P@@ @@@@N
DOC  kz D  DCr p DOVC lqDwlF
llJ @ PvC CDdDOvk p ClC pO qC  @ DOVC oC
lk  lD ,kDv  Z oDwF oDwF CV ok Od .lA@
l lZ  O .Pw oDC PON  CoA OhC, p l lZ
,lzDFOzCl  ok w  D  p@ D@@NC @kA @N
l lZ  k lZ CV ok  oClKF p@C k@F l@C@h @D@h
oC ok vCF DOw ,kp   koCk D@C @@@@@
.lFDF p CN koC V ok  l PDhk Od

 Pw klO DqD CDV p ok :@ @Ck D@@zC(E
D  CC Flvo lD @ koCl Dh lO DA koApF
OvpJpv  DW  Dv S loCl Dh   Dw@ C@C
oC ok kp  Ow PDhkD @ Cp  @@@@ ,D@O@C
kp  Pvk F r on DqD koApF  PvC C ,Od
CpF DoD G C lN  Ck ,pk v qC DC,kpnJ DWC
DO DOdq eN rOw DGD @F ,koCl@ k@v @w@
FD D Cn ,PvDOznkh qC  DoDSC @@O@@  CCp@
qC Ovk C (NCpk)oDwkp D  ok  PvC F@J
DOVC lq fD qC  iF  lDF lO@@F o@C
pO qC  Od D DZ ok A h .kz P@@@N
DN @ lOF oC lN  @Dd D@@O@vk p@ Cl@C
.lz lCi

ok  lA J klO oC DV p ok : C v D@zC (U
kp Pe C kp N mDiNC Co  okF lDF D@@A ko@
 DoCr  Dl lDz qo p ,pF  pC .lz lCh M
MDwv  DDqDv ,DkD ok  kF ChN  o oC C qC
ko@ ok  l@D@@@ go P@@@d @F @O@w@FC @@O@i@
CpF DF pC .kF lDF  kz D  A DpND@A
OzCn kp l pF pC p oDFok pN  l@zD@F
zk DD  loA p ok ?kp lDF Z oC w C ok ,kz
pNkq Z p  koCk Mop PvC O od o@@ @ @F
P D  Pk@V@ qC D@k  C D@F @@FD@@ @@z oD@Fok
 l Chp kp qC lCiF pCDWC ok ,kz p@N
pvDNpv zk D ,lpF N ,DA PpSC D DA  Co G pF
F C D ,kz O Dw  DvDvC  l pNCo o
fD qC iF lFD Pvk ClC F  kz D DOpJ
V Po  PC  oC ok Od .kkp PN o C
 Coz N  kp qC ChppFDF p@C ,koCl@ r@@ Co D@k 
DZ DoD koC HD ok ,lzDF D G C  p kDGN  SdDG
PN fD C iF D fD   lOC N phD@N @F
.kkp
Pe ,DOVC M  Dw qC oDwF ok , A iv DN
C ok .kpnJ DWC PpvF DoD  kz @e@N @No@ ok
N HGv kp qC pCo  Chp M  Dw G
lDF  PvDWC ok .lDvo DDv F Co DVoD  kz fD
.PvCPd l DF Dw DGpN kp  kpPd P

OwOrJp DCp uDvC pF  NDzC F qCkpKF C (k
 lD C eDF  Dw  uDvC pF  ,P@vC koC
A DF r koC qC oDwF ok  koCk PC kp PvCh D@F @D@
lvD  fD PhDz : PvC C DCC DzC .Pw@ @C@
CCp pq  oDz ,  v DDA p ok @@C
,lk Pvk oDzlC DizC CpF rV  PvC DFos
 llwJ kp DNCF Hp PpSC aA ,koC pO@@@F ok Cn@
DNC F Hp PpSC Z .PvC DA C fD h ,lCh
 CN ,lrVD lvD  fD rN  CokCqC D@V p@ kCp@C
nhCDA qC Co DOVC Oi z  oC oCkC  pFlN z lD@G@
 koCl  lOw   COJ DGD ,D@A oD@@C  CoA .kp@
.l DCoqpF  MkDv F Co DV lCN

PhDz Pd kp PpSC pC Od ,@ @C k D@@zC (@
CN ZB loCl rp  @ lzDF OzCk Co lvD@  f@D@@
 l p p kh p  iz D qC  PzCk 
PvClJ c F ?lqk Z khD  fD F 
oCkohpF ODC  PCl ,o ,N DZ qC D@kA P@p@S@C @
 iz D pF D fD OzCk l F Co DA lOw@@
 fDF  DF Od  PvC  CpFDF .kr@@Cp@F @p@
Co DD  l qCpFC Co CoA ,p oDC D ok ,C lvD@
lC ok rV  l kCZ  ,Co  fD  ,l @D@N
l DOVC oC cC rV  lOw kh D MkDv  ph
lDF , l D F "vCpk" p CoClpqC ,xJ .loCl
D ) Dw l pF Co fD N  rN CpZ  l@@vp@J
fD PhDz CpF  OwDz   loCn (kp PpSC
DOd aA qCpFC CpF  do  hC OwDz   l@oCk
PvC kp DOVC fD DN Pd w .lFD  lCk
.l p oD C DF Dz 

p pF ,C F uDvC pF  DzC F vo@ D@W@Cp@v (
oCkC  PvC C DzC.kz koC pk MDp qC oDwF  oFr
DV kCpC D lq ok CCp MDpN O DOVC o@C
kh Dd F Co DA  llF DN kCqA ,kpF @ @O@@@d .P@vC
 l ODhk DOVC @z  o@C qC @ b@@ ok  koCn@C
.Pw Pd ,C ok ,ll oCp   pC ko@ Co @@D@VkCp@C
lvD  fDuDvC pF  lA kV F o @l@F P@@@d
qC Co DA  pF   C A CpVC  l  C@ @@C
,lq qDFpv D PDC qC DpD kCpC pC  lC@i@F kp@
 ok ,o C qC .lk p DwF Z  koA Co F CrC  oDGVC F Co DA
 DlF  l wv  kDWC rOw Pd kV ,pF@C@V
ok DOkleC .PvC DV kCpC NN lq ok DO@kl@e@
V pC S .kz D OGC ,oCpC  DSO@vC koC@
l  DV kCpC qC  p  lop Pd DwF Z ,lA J
MCop  DdC G C .kqCkpKF V oC oCkC CpF Co kh lAok
pe DA qC Od pC  PvC Od p @C MCoD@@O@hCqC
,Mo Cok .l  kh D F lCN D b@@ ,l@zD@F
N Co kh Dv lAok  PzCk d D HV F  iz
pN  N qC ,kD p  oCpC HGv F ,l p@@N 
kCpC lDG Pd  P CN .kz @@ A qC @@i@F
DZ @ Cpq ,kqDv pe loCk D d F  dqC Co @@D@V
PdlpF  D CqC F lD@F @ @kp@ oD@zC @ @G@
,MCoDOhC A qC kDOvC DF lCOF DN llF C F  NCoDOhC l@
 V pC  PvC  PdO .l  k@h D@ @F
qpJ F  l pFlN  pGo Fh F Co A  kp lpF Co Dk
Dk  V r  lzDF OzCl oDOhC  Pw ,lFD Pvk
F r A ,kz Hv C qC oDOhC C pC .lC@i@F kp@ qC Co
 Pw z Dd p F xJ .lz lCh D@v  qC k@h k@h
.lF lDF  ,l PDhkkp oC ok F   Pd
 pF PDd d kp PpSC D  : PvC C ok iv C
DA F Co d Z wZ  ?lCkoA Pvk F D@W@ qC Co kp@
pF  PvC kCk d PpSC F w Z Di ?PvC kp D@@C
?l pN ,DA CC  u  CpC ok lzDF D@d P@@@C
PpSC F Co d Z D  l@F j@vD@J ok P@vC @@@
pF ?PvC fe D C k Z F  vpJ qDF  .PvCkCk
D  PvCh pDFD ,vCpk p CoClp @ uD@vC
PpSC F Co PDd d D :F  C .PvC kp Pp@S@C
d ,kp PpSC D  Co :@F@ P@vC @C kD@@ ,kCk
PvC DF Cv Da  .PvC kCk PpSC F D  F Co PDd
?lzDF D lDF kp PpSC D  CoCpZ 
Clh lF  lpA DkA ,C F uDvCpF , A iv D@N@
CpFDF  ,koCk Co DA pFPDd d  Pv DN  lOw DO
 k Z F ,koCl Co pk DwC b pF PDd d DwC b
d DwC :P CN    lOvCCl@ uD@vC p@F
dDV p kCpC PpSC S  koCk Co pk DwC pF P@@D@d
 l PDhk  pN ,PC lq z  oC @ ok @ koCk
qC onF ?Pw PpSClq ok PDhk  pN d lVC ,PC
Clh    HC ok  ykh kV ok DwC MDpN  C
Clh Z.lzDF C mC F lDF r PvC OzCkCqoC  @F D@@O@
PDd ,PFFo ,P ,PD C vD  F PGw ,D@O@
ok .lzDF  mC F lDF kp DW@C @ oD@ p@ ,koCk P@
C mC lFpk DDwC F PGw DDwC P@@D@d @W@@O@
DzC C ,lz pnO DZ .PvC pD@  H@@ C@@
.lA koC r pkd HND qC oDwF pF vDvC
,Pd pC lO lA Pvk F r WO C ,D@zC @C qC
lzDF OzCk  Co pz ClDF ,lz oDzC G  pz v pF 
 Pd  onvDvC pz v .lzDF mD Clh HDV qC 
w pGN F ,l PFDR Pd pC lN CpFCo iz PC
 kClOvC  C CpF .lk D Co  kClOvC  @ D@@@N
Mop ,kz Pd pC lO  iz  lFD P o@n@
 C p F .llF Co oDZ qDVC  F DO Clh  koCk
Pp C Pd  P CN kF oFr pz lVC w@
D Mol  kz D@d x@ b@@ ,@@CmC l@F .koCk
.lFD
lClh HDV qC Pd mC
v , lk Pd lN mC  qDVC Dw F ,DO@ Cl@h
ldpv DN  : D,lzDF CoCk @ wdC e F @ Co kpGD p@z
 @ lOw  lZ p @  Dw D lpz v A lVC D
.lpOkr () DC F ,pz v C kFCoCkok ,Cpk qC
vC PC  oClDq  pC   () DC od Dq ok
HD  MDD  oCklDiz lC@N@@  @Z  P@vC
,lzDF pz v D lVC  pk Dw ,kkp vC @D@V
,pz v C kFCoCk ok  p .l lN C mCF Co oC pDv
kz pO pC lO lzDF pO@kr@ ()@@@ D@C @F
.xDF
@ loCl vpOvk  F DDwC  () DC PG oD@qo ok
ok  @ Od oCDlO pk  vC D@V oCl@D@q r@@
A OzCk ok  lzDF Dw lDF @ loCk DV  qC pNDJ Dko
.lpOkr() DC F Cpz