|
BISM-ILLAH-IR-RAHMAN-IR-RAHEEM
|
(In the name of God, the most Compassionate, the Merciful)
(All praise be to God)
Call unto the way of your Lord with wisdom and good exhortation, and
reason with them in the best way. Lo! your Lord best knows those who go astray
from His path, and He knows best those who are rightly guided.
(Qur'an, 16:125)
IN THE NAME OF ALLAH MOST MERCIFUL AND COMPASSIONATE
INTRODUCTION
This book, which we have called Shi'ite Islam, seeks to clarify the
true identity of Shi'ism which is one of the two major branches of Islam - the
other being Sunnism. It deals in particular with the way Shi'ism originated and
later developed, with the type of religious thought present in Shi'ism, and with
Islamic sciences and culture as seen from the Shi'ite point of view.
The Meaning of Religion (din), Islam, and Shi'ism
Religion. There is no doubt that each member of the human race is
naturally drawn to his fellow-men and that in his life in society he acts in
ways which are interrelated and interconnected. His eating, drinking, sleeping,
keeping awake, talking, listening, sitting, walking, his social intercourse and
meetings, at the same time that they are formally and externally distinct, are
invariably connected with each other. One cannot perform just any act in any
place or after any other act. There is an order which must be observed.
There is, therefore, an order which governs the actions man performs in the
journey of this life, an order against which his actions cannot rebel. In
reality, these acts all originate from a distinct source. That source is man's
desire to possess a felicitous life , a life in which he can react to the
greatest extent possible the objects of his desire, and be gratified. Or, one
could say that man wishes to provide in a more complete way for his needs in
order to continue his existence.
This is why man continually conforms his actions to rules and laws either
devised by himself or accepted from others, and why he selects a particular way
of life for himself among all the other existing possibilities. He works in
order to provide for his means of livelihood and expects his activities to be
guided by laws and regulations that must be followed. In order to satisfy his
sense of taste and overcome hunger and thirst, he eats and drinks, for he
considers eating and drinking necessary for the continuation of his own happy
existence. This rule could be multiplied by many other instances.
The rules and laws that govern human existence depend for their acceptance on
the basic beliefs that man has concerning the nature of universal existence, of
which he himself is a part, and also upon his judgment and evaluation of that
existence. That the principles governing man's actions depend on his conception
of being as a whole becomes clear if one meditates a moment on the different
conceptions that people hold as to the nature of the world and of man.
Those who consider the Universe to be confined only to this material,
sensible world, and man himself to be completely material and therefore subject
to annihilation when the breath of life leaves him at the moment of death,
follow a way of life designed to provide for their material desires and
transient mundane pleasures. They strive solely on this path, seeking to bring
under their control the natural conditions and factors of life.
Similarly, there are those who, like the common people among idol-worshipers,
consider the world of nature to be created by a god above nature who has created
the world specially for man and his goodness. Such men organize their lives so
as to attract the pleasure of the god and not invite his anger. They believe
that if they please the god he will multiply his bounty and make it lasting and
if they anger him he will take his bounty away from them.
On the other hand, such men as Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians, and Muslims
follow the "high path" in this life for they believe in God and in man's eternal
life, and consider man to be responsible for his good and evil acts. As a result
they accept as proven the existence of a day of judgment (qiyamat) and
follow a path that leads to felicity in both this world and the next.
The totality of these fundamental beliefs concerning the nature of man and
the Universe, and regulations in conformity with them which are applied to human
life, is called religion (din). If there are divergences in these
fundamental beliefs and regulations, they are called schools such as the Sunni
and the Shi'ite schools in Islam and the Nestorian in Christianity. We can
therefore say that man, even if he does not believe in the Deity, can never be
without religion if we recognize religion as a program for life based on firm
belief. Religion can never be separated from life and is not simply a matter of
ceremonial acts.
The Holy Quran asserts that man has no choice but to follow religion, which
is a path that God has placed before man so that by treading it man can reach
Him. However, those who have accepted that religion of the truth (Islam) march
in all sincerity upon the path of God, while those who have not accepted the
religion of the truth have been diverted from the divine path and have followed
the wrong road.
Islam etymologically means surrender and obedience. The Holy Quran
calls the religion which invites men toward this end "Islam" since its general
purpose is the surrender of man to the laws governing the Universe and man, with
the result that through this surrender he worships only the One God and obeys
only His commands. As the Holy Quran informs us, the first person who called
this religion "Islam" and its followers "Muslims" was the Prophet Abraham, upon
whom be peace.
Shi'ah, which means literally partisan or follower, refers to those
who consider the succession to the Prophet - may God's peace and benediction be
upon him - to be the special right of the family of the Prophet and who in the
field of the Islamic sciences and culture follow the school of the Household of
the Prophet.
PART I: THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
OF SHI'ISM
CHAPTER I THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF SHI'ISM
Shi'ism began with a reference made for the first time to the partisans of
Ali (shi'ah-i ' Ali), the first leader of the Household of the Prophet,
during the lifetime of the Prophet himself. The course of the first
manifestation and the later growth of Islam during the twenty-three years of
prophecy brought about many conditions which necessitated the appearance of a
group such as the Shi'ites among the companions of the Prophet.
The Holy Prophet during the first days of his prophecy, when according to the
text of the Quran he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to his
religion, told them clearly that whoever would be the first to accept his
invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Ali was the first to step
forth and embrace Islam. The Prophet accepted Ali's submission to the faith and
thus fulfilled his promise.
From the Shi'ite point of view it appears as unlikely that the leader of a
movement, during the first days of his activity, should introduce to strangers
one of his associates as his successor and deputy but not introduce him to his
completely loyal and devout aides and friends. Nor does it appear likely that
such a leader should accept someone as his deputy and successor and introduce
him to others as such, but then throughout his life and religious call deprive
his deputy of his duties as deputy, disregard the respect due to his position as
successor, and refuse to make any distinctions between him and others.
The Prophet, according to many unquestioned and completely authenticated
hadiths, both Sunni and Shi'ite, clearly asserted that Ali was preserved from
error and sin in his actions and sayings. Whatever he said and did was in
perfect conformity with the teachings of religion and he was the most
knowledgeable of men in matters pertaining to the Islamic sciences and
injunctions.
During the period of prophecy Ali performed valuable services and made
remarkable sacrifices. When the infidels of Mecca decided to kill the Prophet
and surrounded his house, the Holy Prophet decided to emigrate to Medina. He
said to Ali, "Will you sleep in my bed at night so that they will think that I
am asleep and I will be secure from being pursued by them?" Ali accepted this
dangerous assignment with open arms. This has been recounted in different
histories and collections of hadith. (The emigration from Mecca to Medina marks
the date of origin of the Islamic calendar, known as the hijrah.) Ali
also served by fighting in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khaybar, Khandaq, and
Hunayn in which the victories achieved with his aid were such that if Ali had
not been present the enemy would most likely have uprooted Islam and the
Muslims, as is recounted in the usual histories, lives of the Prophet, and
collections of hadith.
For Shi'ites, the central evidence of Ali's legitimacy as successor to the
Prophet is the event of Ghadir Khumm when the Prophet chose Ali to the "general
guardianship" (walayat-i 'ammah) of the people and made Ali, like
himself, their "guardian" (wali).
It is obvious that because of such distinctive services and recognition,
because of Ali's special virtues which were acclaimed by all, and because of the
great love the Prophet showed for him, some of the companions of the Prophet who
knew Ali well, and who were champions of virtue and truth, came to love him.
They assembled around Ali and followed him to such an extent that many others
began to consider their love for him excessive and a few perhaps also became
jealous of him. Besides all these elements, we see in many sayings of the
Prophet reference to the "shi'ah of Ali" and the "shi'ah of the Household of the
Prophet."
The Cause of the Separation of the
Shi'ite Minority from the Sunni Majority
The friends and followers of Ali believed that after death of the Prophet the
caliphate and religious authority (marja'iyat-i 'ilmi) belonged to Ali.
This belief came from their consideration of Ali's position and station in
relation to the Prophet, his relation to the chosen among the companions, as
well as his relation to Muslims in general. It was only the events that occurred
during the few days of the Prophet's final illness that indicated that there was
opposition to their view. Contrary to their expectation, at the very moment when
the Prophet died and his body lay still unburied, while his household and a few
companions were occupied with providing for his burial and funeral service, the
friends and followers of Ali received news of the activity of another group who
had gone to the mosque where the community was gathered faced with this sudden
loss of their leader. This group, which was later to form the majority, set
forth in great haste to select a caliph for the Muslims with the aim of ensuring
the welfare of the community and solving its immediate problems. They did this
without consulting the Household of the Prophet, his relatives or many of his
friends, who were busy with the funeral, and without providing them with the
least information. Thus Ali and his companions were presented with a fait
accompli.
Ali and his friends - such as 'Abbas, Zubayr, Salman, Abu Dharr, Miqdad and
'Ammar - after finishing with the burial of the body of the Prophet became aware
of the proceedings by which the caliph had been selected. They protested against
the act of choosing the caliph by consultation or election, and also against
those who were responsible for carrying it out. They even presented their own
proofs and arguments, but the answer they received was that the welfare of the
Muslims was at stake and the solution lay in what had been done.
It was this protest and criticism which separated from the majority the
minority that were following Ali and made his followers known to society as the
"partisans" or "shi'ah" of Ali. The caliphate of the time was anxious to guard
against this appellation being given to the Shi'ite minority and thus to have
Muslim society divided into sections comprised of a majority and a minority. The
supporters of the caliph considered the caliphate to be a matter of the
consensus of the community (ijma') and called those who objected the
"opponents of allegiance." They claimed that the Shi'ah stood, therefore,
opposed to Muslim society. Sometimes the Shi'ah were given other pejorative and
degrading names.
Shi'ism was condemned from the first moment because of the political
situation of the time and thus it could not accomplish anything through mere
political protest. Ali, in order to safeguard the well-being of Islam and of the
Muslims, and also because of lack of sufficient political and military power,
did not endeavor to begin an uprising against the existing political order,
which would have been of a bloody nature. Yet those who protested against the
established caliphate refused to surrender to the majority in certain questions
of faith and continued to hold that the succession to the Prophet and religious
authority belonged by right to Ali. They believed that all spiritual and
religious matters should be referred to him and invited people to become his
followers.
The Two Problems of Succession and
Authority in Religious Sciences
In accordance with the Islamic teachings which form its basis, Shi'ism
believed that the most important question facing Islamic society was the
elucidation and clarification of Islamic teachings and the tenets of the
religious sciences. Only after such clarifications were made could the
application of these teachings to the social order be considered. In other
words, Shi'ism believed that, before all else, members of society should be able
to gain a true vision of the world and of men based on the real nature of
things. Only then could they know and perform their duties as human beings - in
which lay their real welfare - even if the performance of these religious duties
were to be against their desires. After carrying out this first step a religious
government should preserve and execute real Islamic order in society in such a
way that man would worship none other than God, would possess personal and
social freedom to the extent possible, and would benefit from true personal and
social justice.
These two ends could be accomplished only by a person who was inerrant and
protected by God from having faults. Otherwise people could become rulers or
religious authorities who would not be free from the possibility of distortion
of thought or the committing of treachery in the duties placed upon their
shoulders. Were this to happen, the just and freedom-giving rule of Islam could
gradually be converted to dictatorial rule and a completely autocratic
government. Moreover, the pure religious teachings could become, as can be seen
in the case of certain other religions, the victims of change and distortion in
the hands of selfish scholars given to the satisfaction of their carnal desires.
As confirmed by the Holy Prophet, Ali followed perfectly and completely the Book
of God and the tradition of the Prophet in both words and deeds. As Shi'ism sees
it, if, as the majority say, only the Quraysh opposed the rightful caliphate of
Ali, then that majority should have answered the Quraysh by asserting what was
right. They should have quelled all opposition to the right cause in the same
way that they fought against the group who refused to pay the religious tax
(zakat). The majority should not have remained indifferent to what was
right for fear of the opposition of the Quraysh.
What prevented the Shi'ah from accepting the elective method of choosing the
caliphate by the people was the fear of the unwholesome consequences that might
result from it: fear of possible corruption in Islamic government and of the
destruction of the solid basis for the sublime religious sciences. As it
happened, later events in Islamic history confirmed this fear (or prediction),
with the result that the Shi'ites became ever firmer in their belief. During the
earliest years, however, because of the small number of its followers, Shi'ism
appeared outwardly to have been absorbed into the majority, although privately
it continued to insist on acquiring the Islamic sciences from the Household of
the Prophet and to invite people to its cause. At the same time, in order to
preserve the power of Islam and safeguard its progress, Shi'ism did not display
any open opposition to the rest of Islamic society. Members of the Shi'ite
community even fought hand in hand with the Sunni majority in holy wars
(jihad) and participated in public affairs. Ali himself guided the Sunni
majority in the interest of the whole Islam whenever such action was necessary.
The Political Method of the Selection of the Caliph by
Vote and Its Disagreement with the Shi'ite View
Shi'ism believes that the Divine Law of Islam (Shari'ah), whose substance is
found in the Book of God and in the tradition (Sunnah) of the Holy Prophet, will
remain valid to the Day of Judgment and can never, nor will ever, be altered. A
government which is really Islamic cannot under any pretext refuse completely to
carry out the Shari'ah's injunctions. The only duty of an Islamic government is
to make decisions by consultation within the limits set by the Shari'ah and in
accordance with the demands of the moment.
The vow of allegiance to Abu Bakr at Saqifah, which was motivated at least in
part by political considerations, and the incident described in the hadith of
"ink and paper," which occurred during the last days of the illness of the Holy
Prophet, reveal the fact that those who directed and backed the movement to
choose the caliph through the process of election believed that the Book of God
should be preserved in the form of a constitution. They emphasized the Holy Book
and paid much less attention to the words of the Holy Prophet as an immutable
source of the teachings of Islam. They seem to have accepted the modification of
certain aspects of Islamic teachings concerning government to suit the
conditions of the moment and for the sake of the general welfare.
This tendency to emphasize only certain principles of the Divine Law is
confirmed by many sayings that were later transmitted concerning the companions
of the Holy Prophet. For example, the companions were considered to be
independent authorities in matters of the Divine Law (mujtahid), being able to
exercise independent judgment (ijtihad) in public affairs. It was also
believed that if they succeeded in their task they would be rewarded by God and
if they failed they would be forgiven by Him since they were among the
companions. This view was widely held during the early years following the death
of the Holy Prophet. Shi'ism takes a stricter stand and believes that the
actions of the companions, as of all other Muslims, should be judged strictly
according to the teachings of the Shari'ah. For example, there was the
complicated incident involving the famous general Khalid ibn Walid in the house
of one of the prominent Muslims of the day, Malik ibn Nuwajrah, which led to the
death of the latter. The fact that Khalid was not at all taken to task for this
incident because of his being an outstanding military leader shows in the eyes
of Shi'ism an undue lenience toward some of the actions of the companions which
were below the norm of perfect piety and righteousness set by the actions of the
spiritual elite among the companions.
Another practice of the early years which is criticized by Shi'ism is the
cutting off of the khums from the members of the Household of the Prophet
and from the Holy Prophet's relatives. Likewise, because of the emphasis laid by
Shi'ism on the sayings and the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet it is difficult for it
to understand why the writing down of the text of hadith was completely banned
and why, if a written hadith were found, it would be burned. We know that this
ban continued through the caliphate of the khulafa' rashidun into the
Umayyad period and did not cease until the period of Umar ibn 'Abd al- 'Aziz,
who ruled from A.H. 99/A.D. 717 TO A.H. 101/A.D. 719.
During the period of the second caliph (13/634-25/644) there was a
continuation of the policy of emphasizing certain aspects of the Shari'ah and of
putting aside some of the practices which the Shi'ites believe the Holy Prophet
taught and practiced. Some practices were forbidden, some were omitted, and some
were added. For instance, the pilgrimage of tamattu ' (a kind of
pilgrimage in which the 'umrah ceremony is utilized in place of the
hajj ceremony) was banned by Umar during his caliphate, with the decree
that transgressors would be stoned; this in spite of the fact that during his
final pilgrimage the Holy Prophet - peace be upon him - instituted, as in Quran,
Surah II, 196, a special form for the pilgrimage ceremonies that might be
performed by pilgrims coming from far away. Also, during the lifetime of the
Prophet of God temporary marriage (mut'ah) was practiced, but Umar
forbade it. And even though during the life of the Holy Prophet it was the
practice to recite in the call to prayers, "Hurry to the best act" (hayya
'ala khayr el-'amal), Umar ordered that it be omitted because he said it
would prevent people from participating in holy war, jihad. (It is still recited
in the Shi'ite call to prayers, but not in the Sunni call.) There were also
additions to the Shari'ah: during the time of the Prophet a divorce was valid
only if the three declarations of divorce ("I divorce thee") were made on three
different occasions, but Umar allowed the triple divorce declaration to be made
at one time. Heavy penalties were imposed on those who broke certain of these
new regulations, such as stoning in the case of mut'ah marriage.
It was also during the period of the rule of the second caliph that new social
and economic forces led to the uneven distribution of the public treasury
(bayt al-mal) among the people, an act which was alter the cause of
bewildering class differences and rightful and bloody struggles among Muslims.
At this time Mu'awiyah was ruling in Damascus in the style of the Persian and
Byzantine kings and was even given the title of the "Khusraw of the Arabs" (a
Persian title of the highest imperial power), but no serious protest was made
against him for his worldly type of rule.
The second caliph was killed by a Persian slave in 25/644. In accordance with
the majority vote of a six-man council which assembled by order of the second
caliph before his death, the third caliph was chosen. The third caliph did not
prevent his Umayyad relatives from becoming dominant over the people during his
caliphate and appointed some of them as rulers in the Hijaz, Iraq, Egypt, and
other Muslim lands. These relatives began to be lax in applying moral principles
in government. Some of them openly, committed injustice and tyranny, sin and
iniquity, and broke certain of the tenets of firmly established Islamic laws.
Before long, streams of protest began to flow toward the capital. But the
caliph, who was under the influence of his relatives - particularly Marwan ibn
Hakam - did not act promptly or decisively to remove the causes against which
the people were protesting. Sometimes it even happened that those who protested
were punished and driven away.
An incident that happened in Egypt illustrates the nature of the rule of the
third caliph. A group of Muslims in Egypt rebelled against Uthman. Uthman sensed
the dander and asked Ali for help, expressing his feeling of contrition. Ali
told the Egyptians, "You have revolted in order to bring justice and truth to
life. Uthman has repented saying, 'I shall change my ways and in three days will
fulfill your wishes. I shall expel the oppressive rulers from their posts.'" Ali
then wrote an agreement with them on behalf of Uthman and they started home. On
the way they saw the slave of Uthman riding on his camel in the direction of
Egypt. They became suspicious of him and searched him. On him they found a
letter for the governor of Egypt containing the following words: "In the name of
God. When 'Abd al-Rahman ibn 'Addis comes to you beat him with a hundred lashes,
shave his head and beard and condemn him to long imprisonment. Do the same in
the case of 'Amr ibn al'Hamq, Suda ibn Hamran, and 'Urwah ibn Niba '." The
Egyptians took the letter and returned with anger to Uthman, saying, "You have
betrayed us!" Uthman denied the letter. They said, "Your slave was the carrier
of the letter." He answered, "He has committed this act without my permission
and knowledge." They said, "The letter is in the handwriting of your secretary."
He replied, "This has been done without my permission and knowledge." They said,
"In any case you are not competent to be caliph and must resign, for if this has
been done with your permission you are a traitor and if such important matters
take place without your permission and knowledge then your incapability and
incompetence is proven. In any case, either resign or dismiss the oppressive
agents from office immediately." Uthman answered, "If I wish to act according to
your will, then it is you who are the rulers. Then, what is my function?" They
stood up and left the gathering in anger.
During his caliphate Uthman allowed the government of Damascus, at the head of
which stood Mu'awiyah, to be strengthened more than ever before. In reality, the
center of gravity of the caliphate as far as political power was concerned was
shifting to Damascus and the organization in Medina, the capital of the Islamic
world, was politically no more than a form without the necessary power and
substance to support it. Finally, in the year 35/656, the people rebelled and
after a few days of siege and fighting the third caliph was killed.
The first caliph was selected through the vote of the majority of the
companions, the second caliph by the will and testament of the first, and the
third by a six-man council whose members and rules of procedure were organized
and determined by the second caliph. Altogether, the policy of these three
caliphs, who were in power for twenty-five years, was to execute and apply
Islamic laws and principles in society in accordance with ijtihad and what
appeared most wise at the time to the caliphs themselves. As for the Islamic
sciences, the policy of these caliphs was to have the Holy Quran read and
understood without being concerned with commentaries upon it or allowing it to
become the subject of discussion. The hadith of the Prophet was recited and was
transmitted orally without being written down. Writing was limited to the text
of the Holy Quran and was forbidden in the case of hadith.
After the battle of Yamamah which ended in 12/633, many of those who had been
reciters of the Holy Quran and who knew it by heart were killed. As a result
Umar ibn al-Khattab proposed to the first caliph to have the verses of the Holy
Quran collected in written form, saying that if another war were to occur and
the rest of those who knew the Quran by heart were to be killed, the knowledge
of the text of the Holy Book would disappear among men. Therefore, it was
necessary to assemble the Quranic verses in written form.
From the Shi'ite point of view it appears strange that this decision was made
concerning the Quran and yet despite the fact that the prophetic hadith, which
is the complement of the Quran, was faced with the same danger and was not free
from corruption in transmission, addition, diminution, forgery and
forgetfulness, the same attention was not paid to it. On the contrary, as
already mentioned, writing it down was forbidden and all of the written versions
of it that were found were burned, as if to emphasize that only the text of the
Holy Book should exist in written form.
As for the other Islamic sciences, during this period little effort was made
to propagate them, the energies of the community being spent mostly in
establishing the new sociopolitical order. Despite all the praise and
consecration which are found in the Quran concerning knowledge ('ilm),
and the emphasis placed upon its cultivation, the avid cultivation of the
religious sciences was postponed to a later period of Islamic history.
Most men were occupied with the remarkable and continuous victories of the
Islamic armies, and were carried away by the flood of immeasurable booty which
came from all directions toward the Arabian peninsula. With this new wealth and
the worldliness which came along with it, few were willing to devote themselves
to the cultivation of the sciences of the Household of the Prophet, at whose
head stood Ali, whom the Holy Prophet had introduced to the people as the one
most versed in the Islamic sciences. At the same time, the inner meaning and
purpose of the teachings of the Holy Quran were neglected by most of those who
were affected by this change. It is strange that, even in the matter of
collecting the verses of the Holy Quran, Ali was not consulted and his mane was
not mentioned among those who participated in this task, although it was known
by everyone that he had collected the text of the Holy Quran after the death of
the Prophet.
It has been recounted in many traditions that after receiving allegiance from
the community, Abu Bakr sent someone to Ali and asked for his allegiance. Ali
said, "I have promised not to leave my house except for the daily prayers until
I compile the Quran." And it has been mentioned that Ali gave his allegiance to
Abu Bakr after six months. This itself is proof that Ali had finished compiling
the Quran. Likewise, it has been recounted that after compiling the Quran he
placed the pages of the Holy Book on a camel and showed it to the people. It is
also recounted that the battle of Yamamah after which the Quran was compiled,
occurred during the second year of the caliphate of Abu Bakr. These facts have
been mentioned in most works on history and hadith which deal with the account
of the compilation of the Holy Quran.
These and similar events made the followers of Ali more firm in their belief and
more conscious of the course that lay before them. They increased their activity
from day to day and Ali himself, who was cut off from the possibility of
educating and training the people in general, concentrated on privately training
an elite.
During this twenty-five year period Ali lost through death three of his four
dearest friends and associates, who were also among the companions of the
Prophet: Salman al-Farsi, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, and Miqdad. They had been
constant in their friendship with him in all circumstances. It was also during
this same period that some of the other companions of the Holy Prophet and a
large number of their followers in the Hijaz, the Yemen, Iraq, and other lands,
joined the followers of Ali. As a result, after the death of the third caliph
the people turned to Ali from all sides, swore allegiance to him and chose him
as caliph.
The Termination of the Caliphate of 'Ali Amir al-mu'minin
and His Method of Rule
The caliphate of Ali began toward the end of the year 35/656 and lasted about
four years and nine months. During his period as caliph Ali followed the ways of
the Holy Prophet and brought conditions back to their original state. He forced
the resignation of all the incompetent political elements who had a hand in
directing affairs and began in reality a major transformation of a
"revolutionary" nature which caused him innumerable difficulties.
On his first day as caliph, in an address to the people, Ali said, "O People,
be aware that the difficulties which you faced during the apostolic period of
the Prophet of God have come upon you once again and seized you. Your ranks must
be turned completely around so that the people of virtue who have fallen behind
should come forward and those who had come to the fore without being worthy
should fall behind. There is both truth (haqq) and falsehood (batil).
Each has its followers; but a person should follow the truth. If falsehood be
prevalent it is not something new, and if the truth is rare and hard to come by,
sometimes even that which is rare wins the day so that there is hope of advance.
Of course it does not occur often that something which has turned away from man
should return to him."
Ali continued his radically different type of government based more on
righteousness than political efficacy but, as is necessary in the case of every
movement of this kind, elements of the opposition whose interests were
endangered began to display their displeasure and resisted his rule. Basing
their actions on the claim that they wanted to revenge the death of Uthman, they
instigated bloody wars which continued throughout almost all the time that Ali
was caliph. From the Shi'ite point of view those who caused these civil wars had
no end in mind other than their own personal interest. The wish to revenge the
blood of the third caliph was no more than an excuse to fool the crowd. There
was no question of a misunderstanding.
After the death of the Holy Prophet, a small minority, following Ali, refused
to pay allegiance. At the head of the minority there were Salman, Abu Dharr,
Miqdad, and Ammar. At the beginning of the caliphate of Ali also a sizable
minority in disagreement refused to pay allegiance. Among the most persistent
opponents were Sa'id ibn 'Ass, Walid ibn 'Uqbah, Marwan ibn Hakam, 'Amr ibn
'Ass, Busr ibn Artat, Samurah ibn Jundab, and Mughirah ibn Shu'bah.
The study of the biography of these two groups, and meditation upon the acts
they have performed and stories recounted of them in history books, reveal fully
their religious personality and aim. The first group were among the elite of the
companions of the Holy Prophet and among the ascetics, devout worshipers and
selfless devotees of Islam who struggled on the path of Islamic freedom. They
were especially loved by the Prophet. The Prophet said, "God has informed me
that He loves four men and that I should love them also." They asked about their
names. He mentioned Ali and then the names of Abu Dharr, Salman and Miqdad.
(Sunan of Ibn Majah, Cairo, 1372, vol. I, p. 66.) 'A'ishah has recounted
that the Prophet of God said, "If two alternatives are placed before Ammar, he
will definitely choose that which is more true and right." (Ibn Majah,
vol. I, p. 66.) The Prophet said, "There is no one between heaven and earth
more truthful than Abu Dharr." (Ibn Majah, vol. I, p. 68.) There is no
record of a single forbidden act committed by these men during their lifetime.
They never spilled any blood unjustly, did not commit aggression against anyone,
did not steal anyone's property, never sought to corrupt and misguide people.
History is, however, full of accounts of unworthy acts committed by some of
the second group. The various acts committed by some of these men in opposition
to explicit Islamic teachings are beyond reckoning. These acts cannot be excused
in any manner except the way that is followed by certain groups among the Sunnis
who say that God was satisfied with them and therefore they were free to perform
whatever act they wished, and that they would not be punished for violating the
injunctions and regulations existing in the Holy Book and the Sunnah.
The first war in the caliphate of Ali, which is called the "Battle of the
Camel," was caused by the unfortunate class differences created during the
period of rule of the second caliph as a result of the new socioeconomic forces
which caused an uneven distribution of the public treasury among members of the
community. When chosen to the caliphate, Ali divided the treasury evenly as had
been the method of the Holy Prophet, but this manner of dividing the wealth
upset Talhah and Zubayr greatly. They began to show signs of disobedience and
left Medina for Mecca with the alleged aim of making the pilgrimage. They
persuaded "the mother of the Faithful" (umm al-mu'minin), A'ishah, who
was not friendly with Ali, to join them and in the name of wanting to revenge
the death of the third caliph they began the bloody Battle of the Camel. This
was done despite the fact that this same Talhah and Zubayr were in Medina when
the third caliph was besieged and killed but did nothing to defend him.
Furthermore, after his death they were the first to pay allegiance to Ali on
behalf of the immigrants (muhajirun) as well as on their own. Also, the
"mother of the Faithful," A'ishah, did not show any opposition to those who had
killed the third caliph at the moment when she received the news of his death.
It must be remembered that the main investigators of the disturbances that led
to the death of the third caliph were those companions who wrote letters from
Medina to people near and far inviting them to rebel against the caliph, a fact
which is repeated in many early Muslim histories.
As for the second war, called the Battle of Siffin, which lasted for a year and
a half, its cause was the covetousness of Mu'awiyah for the caliphate which for
him was a worldly political instrument rather than a religious institution. But
as an excuse he made the revenge of the blood of the third caliph the main issue
and began a war in which more than a hundred thousand people perished without
reason. Naturally, in these wars Mu'awiyah was the aggressor rather than the
defender, for the protest to revenge someone's blood can never occur in the form
of defense. The pretext of this war was blood revenge. During the last days of
his life, the third caliph, in order to quell the uprising against him, asked
Mu'awiyah for help, but the army of Mu'awiyah which set out from Damascus to
Medina purposely waited on the road until the caliph was killed. Then he
returned to Damascus to begin an uprising to revenge the caliph's death. After
the death of Ali and his gaining the caliphate himself, Mu'awiyah forgot the
question of revenging the blood of the third caliph and did not pursue the
matter further.
After Siffin there occurred the battle of Nahrawan in which a number people,
among whom there could be found some of the companions, rebelled against Ali,
possibly at the instigation of Mu'awiyah. These people were causing rebellion
throughout the lands of Islam, killing the Muslims and especially the followers
of Ali. They even attacked pregnant women and killed their babies. Ali put down
this uprising as well, but a short while later was himself killed in the mosque
of Kufa by one of the members of this group who came to be known as the
Khawarij.
The opponents of Ali claim that he was a courageous man but did not possess
political acumen. They claim that at the beginning of his caliphate he could
have temporarily made peace with his opponents. He could have approached them
through peace and friendship, thus courting their satisfaction and approval. In
this way he could have strengthened his caliphate and only then turned to their
extirpation and destruction. What people who hold this view forgot is that the
movement of Ali was not based on political opportunism. It was a radical and
revolutionary religious movement (in the true sense of revolution as a spiritual
movement to reestablish the real order of things and not in its current
political and social sense); therefore it could not have been accomplished
through compromise or flattery and forgery. A similar situation can be seen
during the apostleship of the Holy Prophet. The infidels and polytheists
proposed peace to him many times and swore that if he were to abstain from
protesting against their gods they would not interfere with his religious
mission. But the Prophet did not accept such a proposal, although he could in
those days of difficulty have made peace and used flattery to fortify his own
position, and then have risen against his enemies. In fact, the Islamic message
never allows a right and just cause, nor a falsehood to be rejected and
disproven through another falsehood. There are many Quranic verses concerning
this matter.
The Benefit which the Shi'ah Derived from the
Caliphate of Ali
During the four years and nine months of his caliphate, Ali was not able to
eliminate the disturbed conditions which were prevailing throughout the Islamic
world, but he was successful in three fundamental ways:
1. As a result of his just and upright manner of living he revealed once
again the beauty and attractiveness of the way of life of the Holy Prophet,
especially to the younger generation. In contrast to the imperial grandeur of
Mu'awiyah, he lived in simplicity and poverty like the poorest of people. He
never favored his friends or relatives and family above others, nor did he ever
prefer wealth to poverty or brute force to weakness.
2. Despite the cumbersome and strenuous difficulties which absorbed his time,
he left behind among the Islamic community a valuable treasury of the truly
divine sciences and Islamic intellectual disciplines. Nearly eleven thousand of
his proverbs and short sayings on different intellectual, religious and social
subjects have been recorded. In his talks and speeches he expounded the most
sublime Islamic sciences in a most elegant and flowing manner. He established
Arabic grammar and laid the basis for Arabic literature.
He was the first in Islam to delve directly into the questions of metaphysics
(falsafah-i ilahi) in a manner combining intellectual rigor and logical
demonstration. He discussed problems which had never appeared before in the same
way among the metaphysicians of the world. Moreover, he was so devoted to
metaphysics and gnosis that even in the heat of battle he would carry out
intellectual discourse and discuss metaphysical questions.
3. He trained a large number of religious scholars and Islamic savants, among
whom are found a number of ascetics and gnostics who were the forefathers of the
Sufis, such men as Uways al-Qarani, Kumayl al-Nakha'i, Maytham al-Tammar and
Roshaid al-Hajari. These men have been recognized by the later Sufis as the
founders of gnosis in Islam. Others among his disciples became the first
teachers of jurisprudence, theology, Quranic commentary and recitation.
The Transfer of the Caliphate to Mu'awiyah and
Its Transformation into a Hereditary Monarchy
After the death of Ali, his son, Hasan ibn Ali, who is recognized by the
Shi'ah as their second Imam, became caliph. This designation occurred in
accordance with Ali's last will and testament and also by the allegiance of the
community to Hasan. But Mu'awiyah did not remain quiet before this event. He
marched with his army toward Iraq, which was then the capital of the caliphate ,
and began to wage war against Hasan.
Through different intrigues and the payment of great sums of money, Mu'awiyah
was able gradually to corrupt the aides and generals of Hasan. Finally he was
able to force Hasan to hand the caliphate over to him so as to avoid bloodshed
and to make peace. Hasan handed the caliphate to Mu'awiyah on the condition that
the caliphate would be returned to him after the death of Mu'awiyah and that no
harm would come to his partisans.
In the year 40/661 Mu'awiyah finally gained control of the caliphate. He then
set out immediately for Iraq and in a speech to the people of that land said: "I
did not fight against you for the sake of the prayers or of fasting. These acts
you can perform yourself. What I wanted to accomplish was to rule over you and
this end I have achieved." He also said, "The agreement I made with Hasan is
null and void. It lies trampled under my feet." With this declaration Mu'awiyah
made known to the people the real character of his government and revealed the
nature of the program he had in mind.
He indicated in his declaration that he would separate religion from politics
and would not give any guarantees concerning religious duties and regulations.
He would spend all his force to preserve and to keep alive his own power,
whatever might be the cost. Obviously a government of such a nature is more of a
sultanate and a monarchy than a caliphate and vicegerency of the Prophet of God
in its traditional Islamic sense. That is why some who were admitted to his
court addressed him as "king." He himself in some private gatherings interpreted
his government as a monarchy, while in public he always introduced himself as
the caliph.
Naturally any monarchy that is based on force carries with it inherently the
principle of inheritance. Mu'awiyah, too, finally realized this fact, and chose
his son, Yazid, who was a heedless young man without the least religious
personality, as the "crown prince" and his successor. This act was to be the
cause of many regrettable events in the future. Mu'awiyah had previously
indicated that he would refuse to permit Hasan ibn Ali to succeed him as caliph
and that he had other thoughts in mind. Therefore he had caused Hasan to be
killed by poisoning, thus preparing the way for his son, Yazid.
In breaking his agreement with Hasan, Mu'awiyah made it clear that he would
never permit the Shi'ah of the Household of the Prophet to live in a peaceful
and secure environment and continue their activity as before, and he carried
into action this very intention. It has been said that he went so far as to
declare that whoever would transmit a hadith in praise of the virtues of the
Household of the Prophet would have no immunity or protection concerning his
life, merchandise and property. At the same time he ordered that whoever could
recite a hadith in praise of the other companions or caliphs would be given
sufficient reward. As a result a noticeable number of hadiths were recorded at
this time praising the companions, some of which are of doubtful authenticity.
He ordered pejorative comments to be made about Ali from the pulpits of mosques
throughout the lands of Islam, while he himself sought to revile Ali. This
command continued to be more or less in effect until the caliphate of Umar ibn
'Abd al-'Aziz, when it was discontinued. With the help of his agents and
lieutenants, Mu'awiyah caused elite and the most outstanding among the partisans
of Ali to be put to death and the heads of some of them to be carried on lances
throughout different cities. The majority of Shi'ites were forced to disown and
even curse Ali and to express their disdain for him. If they refused, they were
put to death.
The Bleakest Days of Shi'ism
The most difficult period for Shi'ism was the twenty-year rule of Mu'awiyah,
during which the Shi'ites had no protection and most of them were considered as
marked characters, under suspicion and hunted down by the state. Two of the
leaders of Shi'ism who lived at this time, Imams Hasan and Husayn, did not
possess any means whatsoever to change the negative and oppressive circumstances
in which they lived. Husayn, the third Imam of Shi'ism, had no possibility of
freeing the Shi'ites from persecution in the ten years he was Imam during
Mu'awiyah's caliphate, and when he rebelled during the caliphate of Yazid he was
massacred along with all his aides and children.
Certain people in the Sunni world explain as pardonable the arbitrary, unjust
and irresponsible actions carried out at this time by Mu'awiyah and his aides
and lieutenants, some of whom were like Mu'awiyah himself, among the companions.
This group reasons that according to certain hadiths of the Holy Prophet all the
companions could practice ijtihad, that they were excused by God for the sins
they committed, and that God was satisfied with them and forgave them whatever
wrong they might have performed. The Shi'ites, however, do not accept this
argument for two reasons:
1. It is not conceivable that a leader of human society like the Prophet
should rise in order to revivify truth, justice and freedom and to persuade a
group of people to accept his beliefs - a group all of whose members had
sacrificed their very existence in order to accomplish this sacred end - and
then as soon as this end is accomplished give his aides and companions complete
freedom to do with these sacred laws as they will. It is not possible to believe
that the Holy Prophet would have forgiven the companions for whatever wrong
action they might have performed. Such indifference to the type of action
performed by them would have only destroyed the structure which the Holy Prophet
had built with the same means that he had used to construct it.
2. Those sayings which depict the companions as inviolable and pardoned in
advance for every act they might perform, even one unlawful or inadmissible, are
most likely apocryphal ; the authenticity of many of them has not been fully
established by traditional methods. Moreover, it is known historically that the
companions did not deal with one another as if they were inviolable and pardoned
for all their sins and wrongdoings. Therefore, even judging by the way the
companions acted and dealt with each other, it can be concluded that such
sayings cannot be literally true in the way some have understood them. If they
do contain an aspect of the truth it is in indicating the legal inviolability of
the companions and the sanctification which they enjoyed generally as a group
because of their proximity to the Holy Prophet. The expression of God's
satisfaction with the companions in the Holy Quran, because of the services they
had rendered in obeying His Command, refers to their past actions, and to God's
satisfaction with them in the past, not to whatever action each one of them
might perform in the future.
The Establishment of Umayyad Rule
In the year 60/680 Mu'awiyah died and his son Yazid became caliph, as the
result of the allegiance which his father had obtained for him from the powerful
political and military leaders of the community. From the testimony of
historical documents it can be seen clearly that Yazid had no religious
character at all and that even during the lifetime of his father he was
oblivious to the principles and regulations of Islam. At that time his only
interest was debauchery and frivolity. During his three years of caliphate he
was the cause of calamities that had no precedent in the history of Islam,
despite all the strife that had occurred before him.
During the first year of Yazid's rule Imam Husayn, the grandson of the Holy
Prophet, was massacred in the most atrocious manner along with his children,
relatives, and friends. Yazid even had some of the women and children of the
Household of the Prophet killed and their heads displayed in different cities.
During the second year of his rule, he ordered a general massacre of Medina and
for three days gave his soldiers freedom to kill, loot, and take the women of
the city. During the third year he had the sacred Ka'bah destroyed and burned.
Following Yazid, the family of Marwan gained possession of the caliphate,
according to details that are recorded in the history books. The rule of this
eleven-member group, which lasted for nearly seventy years, was successful
politically but from the point of view of purely religious values it fell short
of Islamic ideals and practices. Islamic society was dominated by the Arab
element alone and non-Arabs were subordinated to the Arabs. In fact a strong
Arab empire was created which gave itself the name of an Islamic caliphate.
During this period some of the caliphs were indifferent to religious sentiments
to the extent that one of them - who was the "vicegerent of the Holy Prophet"
and was regarded as the protector of religion - decided without showing any
respect for Islamic practices and the feelings of Muslims to construct a room
above the Ka'bah so that he could have a place to enjoy and amuse himself during
the annual pilgrimage. It is even recounted of one of these caliphs that he made
the Holy Quran a target for his arrow and in a poem composed to the Quran said:
"On the Day of Judgment when you appear before God tell Him 'the caliph tore
me.'"
Naturally the Shi'ites, whose basic differences with the Sunnis were in the
two questions of the Islamic caliphate and religious authority, were passing
through bitter and difficult days in this dark period. Yet in spite of the
unjust and irresponsible ways of the governments of the time the asceticism and
purity of the leaders of the Household of the Prophet made the Shi'ites each day
ever more determined to hold on to their beliefs. Of particular importance was
the tragic death of Husayn, the third Imam, which played a major role in the
spread of Shi'ism, especially in regions away from the center of the caliphate,
such as Iraq, the Yemen, and Persia. This can be seen through the fact that
during the period of the fifth Imam, before the end of the first Islamic
century, and less than forty years after the death of Husayn, the Shi'ites took
advantage of the internal differences and weaknesses in the Umayyad government
and began to organize themselves, flocking to the side of the fifth Imam. People
came from all Islamic countries like a flood to his door to collect hadith and
to learn the Islamic sciences. The first century had not yet ended when a few of
the leaders who were influential in the government established the city of Qum
in Persia and made it a Shi'ite settlement. But even then the Shi'ah continued
to live for the most part in hiding and followed their religious life secretly
without external manifestations.
Several times the descendants of the Prophet (who are called in Persian
sadat-i 'alawi) rebelled against the injustice of the government, but
each time they were defeated and usually lost their lives. The severe and
unscrupulous government of the time did not overlook any means of crushing them.
The body of Zayd, the leader of Zayd Shi'ism, was dug out of the grave and
hanged; then after remaining on the gallows for three years it was brought down
and burned, its ashes being thrown to the wind. The Shi'ites believe that the
fourth and fifth Imams were poisoned by the Umayyads as the second and third
Imams had been killed by them before.
The calamities brought about by the Umayyads were so open and unveiled that
the majority of the Sunnis, although they believed generally that it was their
duty to obey the caliphs, felt the pangs of their religious conscience and were
forced to divide the caliphs into two groups. They came to distinguish between
the "rightly guided caliphs" (khulafa rashidun) who are the first four
caliphs after the death of the Holy Prophet (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali), and
the others who began with Mu'awiyah and who did not possess by any means the
religious virtues of the rightly guided caliphs.
The Umayyads caused so much public hatred as a result of their injustice and
heedlessness during their rule that after the definitive defeat and death of the
last Umayyad caliph his two sons and a number of their family encountered great
difficulties in escaping from the capital. No matter where they turned no one
would give them shelter. Finally after much wandering the deserts of Nubia,
Abyssinia, and Bajawah (between Nubia and Abyssinia) during which many of them
died from hunger and thirst, they came to Bab al-Mandab of the Yemen. There they
acquired travel expenses from the people through begging and set out for Mecca
dressed as porters. In Mecca they finally succeeded in disappearing among the
mass of the people.
Shi'ism During the 2nd/8th Century
During the latter part of the first third of the 2nd/8th century, following a
series of revolutions and bloody wars throughout the Islamic world which were
due to the injustice, repressions, and wrongdoings of the Umayyads, there began
an anti-Umayyad movement in the name of the Household of the Prophet in Khurasan
in Persia. The leader of this movement was the Persian general, Abu Muslim
Marwazi, who rebelled against Umayyad rule and advance his cause step by step
until he was able to overthrow the Umayyad government.
Although this movement originated from a profound Shi'ite background and came
into being more or less with the claim of wanting to avenge the blood of the
Household of the Prophet, and although people were even asked secretly to give
allegiance to a qualified member of the family of the Prophet, it did not rise
directly as a result of the instructions of the Imams. This is witnessed by the
fact that when Abu Muslim offered the caliphate to the sixth Imam in Medina he
rejected it completely saying "You are not one of my men and the time is not my
time."
Finally the Abbasids gained the caliphate in the name of the family of the
Prophet and at the beginning showed some kindness to people in general and to
descendants of the Prophet in particular. In the name of avenging the martyrdom
of the family of the Prophet, they massacred the Umayyads, going to the extent
of opening their graves and burning whatever they found in them. But soon they
began to follow unjust ways of the Umayyads and did not abstain in any way from
injustice and irresponsible action. Abu Hanifah, the founder of one of the four
Sunni schools of law, was imprisoned by al-Mansur and whipped. The sixth Imam
died from poisoning after much torture and pain. The descendants of the Holy
Prophet were sometimes beheaded in groups, buried alive, or even placed within
walls of government buildings under construction.
Harun al-Rashid, the Abbasid caliph, during whose reign the Islamic empire
reached the apogee of its expansion and power, occasionally would look at the
sun and address it in these words: "Shine wherever thou wilt, thou shalt never
be able to leave my kingdom." On the other hand his armies were advancing in the
East and West, on the other hand a few steps from the palace of the caliph, and
without his knowledge, officials had decided on their own to collect tolls from
people who wanted to cross the Baghdad bridge. Even one day when the caliph
himself wanted to cross the bridge he was stopped and asked to pay the toll.
A singer, by chanting two lascivious verses, incited the passions of the
Abbasid caliph, Amin, who awarded him three million dirhams. The chanter
in joy threw himself at the feet of the caliph saying, "Oh, leader of the
faithful! You give me all this money?" The caliph answered, "It does not matter.
We receive money from an unknown part of the country."
The bewildering amount of wealth that was pouring every year from all corners
of the Islamic world into the public treasury in the capital helped creating
luxury and a mundane atmosphere. Much of it in fact was often spent for the
pleasures and iniquities of the caliph of the time. The number of beautiful
slave girls in the court of some of the caliphs exceeded thousands. By the
dissolution of Umayyad rule and the establishment of the Abbasids, Shi'ism did
not benefit in any way. Its repressive and unjust opponents merely changed their
name.
Shi'ism in the 3rd/9th Century
At the beginning of the 3rd/9th century Shi'ism was able to breathe once
again. This more favorable condition was first of all due to the fact that many
scientific and philosophical books were translated from Greek, Syriac, and other
languages into Arabic, and people eagerly studied the intellectual and rational
sciences. Moreover, al-Ma'mun, the Abbasid caliph from 198/813 to 218/833, had
Mu'tazilite leanings and since in his religious views he favored intellectual
demonstration, he was more inclined to give complete freedom to the discussion
and propagation of different religious views. Shi'ite theologians and scholars
took full advantage of this freedom and did their utmost to further scholarly
activities and propagate Shi'ite teachings. Also, al-Ma'mun, following demands
of the political forces at the time, had made the eight Shi'ite Imam his
successor, as is recounted in most standard histories. As a result, the
descendants of the Holy Prophet and their friends were to a certain extent free
from pressures from the government and enjoyed some degrees of liberty. Yet
before long the cutting edge of the sword once again turned towards the Shi'ites
and the forgotten ways of the past came upon them again. This was particularly
true in the case of al-Mutawakkil (233/847-247/861) who held a special enmity
towards Ali and the Shi'ites. By his order the tomb of the third Imam in Karbala
was completely demolished.
Shi'ism in the 4th/10th Century
In the 4th/10th century certain conditions again prevailed which aided
greatly the spread and strengthening of Shi'ism. Among them were the weaknesses
that appeared in the central Abbasid government and administration and the
appearance of the Buyid rulers. The Buyids, who were Shi'ite had the greatest
influence not only in the provinces of Persia but also in the capital of the
caliphate in Baghdad, and even upon the caliph himself. This new strength of
considerable proportions enabled the Shi'ites to stand up before their opponents
who previously had tried to crush them by relying upon the power of the
caliphate. It also made it possible for the Shi'ites to propagate their
religious views openly.
As recorded by historians, during this century most of the Arabian peninsula
was Shi'ite with the exception of some of the big cities. Even some of the major
cities like Hajar, Uman, and Sa'dah were Shi'ite. In Basra, which had always
been a Sunni city and competed with Kufa which was considered a Shi'ite center,
there appeared a notable group of Shi'ites. Also in Tripoli, Nablus, Tiberias,
Aleppo, Nayshapur, and Herat there were many Shi'ites, while Ahwaz and the coast
of the Persian Gulf on the Persian side were also Shi'ite.
At the beginning of this century Nasir Utrush, after many years of
propagation of his religious mission in northern Persia, gained power in
Tabaristan and established a kingdom which continued for several generations
after him. Before Utrush, Hasan ibn Zayd al-'Alawi had reigned from many years
in Tabaristan. Also in this period the Fatimids, who were Isma'ili, conquered
Egypt and organized a caliphate which lasted for over two centuries
(296/908-567/1171). Often disputation and fighting occurred in major cities like
Baghdad, Cairo and Nayshapur between Shi'ites and Sunnis, in some of which the
Shi'ites would gain the upper hand and come out victorious.
Shi'ism from the 5th/11th to the 9th/15th Centuries
From the 5th/11th to the 9th/15th centuries Shi'ism continued to expand as it
had done in the 4th/10th century. Many kings and rulers who were Shi'ite
appeared in different parts of the Islamic world and propagated Shi'ism. Toward
the end of the 5th/11th century the missionary activity of Isma'ilism took root
in the fort of Alamut and for nearly a century and a half the Isma'ilis lived in
complete independence in the central regions of Persia. Also the Sadat-i
Mar'ashi, who were descendants of the Holy Prophet, ruled for many years in
Mazandaran (Tabaristan). Shah Muhammad Khudabandah, one of the well-known Mongol
rulers, became Shi'ite and his descendants ruled for many years in Persia and
were instrumental in spreading Shi'ism. Mention must also be made of the kings
of the Aq Qoyunlu and Qara Qoyunlu dynasties who ruled in Tabriz and whose
domain extended to Fars and Kerman, as well as of the Fatimid government which
was ruling in Egypt.
Of course religious freedom and the possibility of exerting religious power
by the populace differed under different rulers. For example, with the
termination of Fatimid rule and coming to power of the Ayyubids the scene
changed completely and the Shi'ite population of Egypt and Syria lost its
religious independence. Many of the Shi'ites of Syria were killed during this
period merely on the accusation of following Shi'ism. One of these was Shahid-i
awwal (the First Martyr) Muhammad ibn Makki, one of the great figures in Shi'ite
jurisprudence, who was killed in Damascus in 786/1384. Also Shaykh al-ishraq
Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi was killed in Aleppo on the accusation that he was
cultivating Batini teachings and philosophy. Altogether during this period
Shi'ism was growing from the point of view of numbers, even though its religious
power and freedom depended upon local conditions and the rulers of the time.
During this period, however, Shi'ism never became the official religion of any
Muslim state.
Shi'ism in the 10th/16th and 11th/17th Centuries
In the 10th/16th century Isma'il, who was of the household of Shaykh Safi
al-Din Ardibili (d. 735/1334), a Sufi master and also a Shi'ite, began a revolt
in Ardibil, with three hundred Sufis who were disciples of his forefathers, with
the aim of establishing an independent and powerful Shi'ite country. In this way
he began the conquest of Persia and overcame the local feudal princes. After a
series of bloody wars with local rulers and also the Ottomans who held the title
of caliph, he succeeded in forming Persia piece by piece into a country and in
making Shi'ism the official religion in his kingdom.
After the death of Shah Isma'il other Safavid kings reigned in Persia until
the 12th/18th century and each continued to recognize Shi'ism as the official
religion of the country and further to strengthen its hold upon this land. At
the height of their power, during the reign of Shah 'Abbas, the Safavids were
able to increase the territorial expansion and the population of Persia to twice
its present size. As for other Muslim lands, the Shi'ite population continued
the same as before and increased only through the natural growth of population.
Shi'ism from the 12th/18th to the 14th/20th Centuries
During the past three centuries Shi'ism has followed its natural rate of
growth as before. At the present moment, during the latter part of the 14th/20th
century, Shi'ism is recognized as the official religion in Iran, and in the
Yemen and Iraq the majority population is Shi'ite. In nearly all lands where
there are Muslims one can find a certain number of Shi'ites. It has been said
that altogether in the world today there are about eighty to ninety million
Shi'ites.
CHAPTER II DIVISIONS WITHIN SHI'ISM
Each religion possesses a certain number of primary principles which form its
essential basis and other principles of secondary importance. When the followers
of a religion differ as to the nature of the primary principles and their
secondary aspects but preserve a common basis, the result is called division
(inshi'ab) within that religion. Such divisions exist in all traditions
and religions, and more particularly in the four "revealed" religions of
Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Islam.
Shi'ism did not undergo any divisions during the imamate of the first three
Imams: Ali, Hasan, and Husayn. But after the martyrdom of Husayn, the majority
of the Shi'ites accepted the imamate of Ali ibn Husayn al-Sajjad, while a
minority known as the Kisaniyah believed that the third son of Ali, Muhammad ibn
Hanafiyah, was the fourth Imam as well as the promised Mahdi, and that he had
gone into occultation in the Radwa mountains and one day would reappear. After
the death of Imam al-Sajjad the majority of the Shi'ites accepted as Imam his
son, Muhammad al-Baqir, while a minority followed Zayd al-Shahid, another son of
Imam al-Sajjad, and became known as Zaydis. Following Imam Muhammad al-Baqir,
the Shi'ites accepted his son Ja'far al-Sadiq as Imam and after the death of
Imam Ja'far the majority followed his son Imam Musa al-Kazim as the seventh
Imam. However, one group followed the older son of the sixth Imam, Isma'il, who
had died while his father was still alive, and when this latter group separated
from the majority of Shi'ites it became known as Isma'ilis. Others accepted as
Imam either 'Abdollah al-Aftah or Muhammad, both sons of the sixth Imam.
Finally, another party stopped with the sixth Imam himself and considered him as
the last Imam. In the same way, after the martyrdom of Imam Musa al-Kazim the
majority followed his son, Ali al-Rida, as the eight Imam. However, some stopped
with the seventh Imam and became known as the Waqifiyah.
From the eighth Imam to the twelfth, whom the majority of the Shi'ites
believe to be the promised Mahdi, no division of any importance took place
within Shi'ism. Even if certain events occurred in the form of division, they
lasted but a few days and dissolved by themselves. For example, Ja'far, the son
of the tenth Imam, claimed to be Imam after the death of his brother, the
eleventh Imam. A group of people followed him but scattered in a few days and
Ja'far himself did not follow his claim any further. Further more, there are
differences between Shi'ites in theological and juridical matters which must not
be considered as division in religious schools. Also the Babi and Baha'i sects,
which like the Batinis (the Qaramitah) differ in both the principles (usul) and
branches (furu') of Islam from the Muslims, should in any sense be considered as
branches of Shi'ism.
The sects which separated from the majority of Shi'ites all dissolved within
a short period, except two: the Zaydi and the Isma'ili which continue to exist
until now. To this day communities of these branches are active in various parts
of the world such as the Yemen, India, and Syria. Therefore, we shall limit our
discussion to these two branches along with the majority of Shi'ites who are
Twelvers.
Zaydism and Its Branches
The Zaydis are the followers of Zayd al-Shahid, the son of Imam al-Sajjad.
Zayd rebelled in 121/737 against the Umayyad caliph Hisham 'Abd al-Malik and a
group paid allegiance to him. A battle ensued in Kufa between Zayd and the army
of the caliph in which Zayd was killed.
The followers of Zayd regard him as the fifth Imam of the Household of the
Prophet. After him his son, Yahya ibn Zayd, who rebelled against the caliph
Walid ibn Yazid and was also killed, took his place. After Yahya, Muhammad ibn
'Abdallah and Ibrahim ibn 'Abdallah, who revolted against the Abbasid caliph
Mansur al-Dawaniqi and were also killed, were chosen as Imams.
Henceforth for some time there was disorder in Zaydi ranks until Nasir
al-Utrush, a descendant of the brother of Zayd, arose in Khurasan. Being pursued
by the governmental authorities in that region, he fled to Mazandaran, becoming
himself Imam. For some time his descendants continued to rule as Imams in that
area.
According to Zaydi belief any descendant of Fatimah (the daughter of the
Prophet) who begins an uprising in the name of defending the truth may become
Imam if he is learned in the religious sciences, ethically pure, courageous and
generous. Yet for some time after Utrush and his descendants there was no Imam
who could bring about an insurrection with the sword until recently when, about
sixty years ago, Imam Yahya revolted in the Yemen, which had been part of the
Ottoman Empire, made it independent, and began to rule there as Imam. His
descendants continued to rule in that region as Imams until very recently.
At the beginning the Zaydis, like Zayd himself, considered the first two
caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, as their Imams. But after a while some of them began
to delete the name of the first two caliphs from the list of Imams and placed
Ali as the first Imam.
From what is known of Zaydi beliefs it can be said that in the principles of
Islam (usul) they follow a path close to that of the Mu'tazilites, while in the
branches or derivative institutions of the law (furu') they apply the
jurisprudence of Abu Hanifah, the founder of one of the four Sunni schools of
law. They also differ among themselves concerning certain problems.
Isma'ilism and Its Branches
Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq had a son named Isma'il who was the oldest of his
children. Isma'il died during the lifetime of his father who summoned witnesses
to his death, including the governor of Medina. Concerning this question , some
believed that Isma'il did not die but went into occultation, that he would
appear again and would be the promised Mahdi. They further believed that the
summoning of witnesses on the part of the Imam for Isma'il's death was a way of
hiding the truth in fear of al-Mansur, the Abbasid caliph. Another group
believed that the true Imam was Isma'il whose death meant the imamate was
transferred to his son Muhammad. A third group also held that although he died
during the lifetime of his father he was the Imam and that the imamate passed
after him to Muhammad ibn Isma'il and his descendants. The first two groups soon
became extinct, while the third branch continues to exist to this day and has
undergone a certain amount of division.
The Isma'ilis have a philosophy in many ways similar to that of the Sabaeans
(star worshippers) combined with elements of Hindu gnosis. In the sciences and
decrees of Islam they believe that each exterior reality (zahir) has an inner
aspect (batin) and each element of revelation (tanzil) a hermeneutic and
esoteric exegesis (ta'wil).
The Isma'ilis believe that the earth can never exist without Proof
(hujjah) of God. The Proof is two kinds: "speaker" (natiq) and
"silent one" (samit). The speaker is a prophet and the silent one is an
Imam or Guardian (wali) who is the inheritor, or executor of the testament
(wasi) of a prophet. In any case the Proof of God is the perfect theophany of
the Divinity.
The principle of the Proof of God revolves constantly around the number
seven. A prophet (nabi), who is sent by God, has the function of prophecy
(nubuwwat), of bringing a Divine Law or Shari'ah. A prophet, who is the
perfect manifestation of God, has the esoteric power of initiating men into the
divine Mysteries (walayat). After him there are seven executors of his testament
(wasayat) and the power of esoteric initiation into the Divine Mysteries
(walayat). The seventh in the succession possesses those two powers and also the
additional power of prophecy (nubuwwat). The cycle of seven executors (wasis) is
then repeated with the seventh a prophet.
The Isma'ilis say that Adam was sent as a prophet with the power of prophecy
and of esoteric guidance and he had seven executors of whom the seventh was
Noah, who had the three functions of nubuwwat, wasayat, and walayat. Abraham was
the seventh executor (wasi) of Noah, Moses the seventh executor of Abraham,
Jesus the seventh executor of Moses, Muhammad the seventh executor of Jesus, and
Muhammad ibn Isma'il the seventh executor of Muhammad.
They consider the wasis of the Prophet to be: Ali, Husayn ibn Ali (they do
not consider Imam Hasan among the Imams), Ali ibn Husayn al-Sajjad, Muhammad
al-Baqir, Ja'far al-Sadiq, Isma'il ibn Ja'far, and Muhammad ibn Isma'il. After
this series there are seven descendants of Muhammad ibn Isma'il whose names are
hidden and secret. After them there are the first seven rulers of the Fatimid
caliphate of Egypt the first of whom, 'Ubaydallah al-Mahdi, was the founder of
the Fatimid dynasty. The Isma'ilis also believe that in addition to the Proof of
God there are always present on earth twelve "chiefs" (naqib) who are the
companions and elite followers of the Proof. Some of the branches of the
Batinis, however, like the Druzes, believe six of the "chiefs" to be from the
Imams and six from others.
The Batinis
In the year 278/891, a few years before the appearance of Ubaydallah al-Mahdi
in North Africa, there appeared in Kufa an unknown person from Khuzistan (in
southern Persia) who never revealed his name and identity. He would fast during
the day and worship at night and made a living from his own labor. In addition
he invited people to join the Isma'ili cause and was able to assemble a large
number of people about him. From among them he chose twelve "chiefs" (naqib) and
then he set out for Damascus. Having left Kufa he was never heard of again.
This unknown man was replaced by Ahmad, known as the Qaramite, who began to
propagate Batini teachings in Iraq. As the historians have recorded, he
instituted two daily prayers in place of the five of Islam, removed the
necessity of ablution after sexual intercourse, and made the drinking of wine
permissible. Contemporary with these events, other Batini leaders rose to invite
people to join their cause and assembled a group of followers.
The Batinis had no respect for the lives and possessions of those who were
outside their group. For this reason they began uprisings in the cities of Iraq,
Bahrain, the Yemen, and Syria, spilling the blood of people and looting their
wealth. Many times they stopped the caravans of those who were making the
pilgrimage to Mecca, killing tens of thousands of pilgrims and plundering their
provisions and camels.
Abu Tahir al-Qaramati, one of the Qaramite leaders who in 311/923 had
conquered Basra and did not neglect to kill and plunder, set out with a large
number of Batinis for Mecca in 317/929. After overcoming the brief resistance of
government troops he entered the city and massacred the population as well as
the newly arrived pilgrims. Even within the Masjid al-haram (the mosque
containing the Ka'bah) and within the Holy Ka'bah itself, there flowed streams
of blood. He divided the covering of the Ka'bah between his disciples. He tore
away the door of the Ka'bah and took the black stone from its place back to the
Yemen. For twenty-two years the black stone was in Qaramite hands. As a result
of these actions the majority of Muslims turned completely away from the Batinis
and considered them outside the pale of Islam. Even 'Ubaydallah al-Mahdi, the
Fatimid ruler, who had risen in those days in North Africa and considered
himself the promised Mahdi, abhorred them.
According to the view of historians the distinguishing characteristic of the
Batini school is that it interprets the external aspects of Islam in an esoteric
manner and considers the externals of the Shari'ah to be only for simple-minded
people of little intelligence who are deprived of spiritual perfection. Yet
occasionally the Batini Imams did order certain regulations and laws to be
practiced and followed.
The Nizaris, Musta'lis, Druzes and Muqanna'ah
The Nizaris. Ubaydallah al-Mahdi, who rose in North Africa in 292/904
and as an Isma'ili declared his imamate and established Fatimid rule, is the
founder of the dynasty whose descendants made Cairo the center of their
caliphate. For seven generations this sultanate and Isma'ili imamate continued
without any divisions. At the death of the seventh Imam, al-Mustansir bi'llah
Mu'idd ibn Ali, his sons, Nizar and al-Musta'li, began to dispute over the
caliphate and imamate. After long disputes and bloody battle al-Musta'li was
victorious. He captured his brother Nizar and placed him in prison, where he
died.
Following this dispute those who accepted the Fatimids divided into two
groups: the Nizaris and the Musta'lis. The Nizaris are the followers of Hasan
al-Sabbah, who was one of the close associates of al-Mustansir. After Nizar's
death, because of his support of Nizar, Hasan al-Sabbah was expelled from Egypt
by al-Musta'li. He came to Persia and after a short while appeared in the Fort
of Alamut near Qazwin. He conquered Alamut and several surrounding forts. There
he established his rule and also began to invite people to the Isma'ili cause.
After the death of Hasan in 518/1124 Buzurg Umid Rudbari and after him his
son, Kiya Muhammad, continued to rule following the methods and ways of Hasan
al-Sabbah. After Kiya Muhammad, his son Hasan 'AlaDhikrihi'l-Salam, the fourth
ruler of Alamut, changed the ways of Hasan al-Sabbah, who had been Nizari, and
became Batini. Henceforth the Isma'ili forts continued as Batini. Four other
rulers, Muhammad ibn Ala Dhikruhi'l-Salam, Jala al-Din Hasan, 'Ala' al-Din, and
Rukn al-Din Khurshah, became Sultan and Imam one after another until Hulagu, the
Mongol conqueror, invaded Persia. He captured Isma'ili forts and put all the
Isma'ilis to death, leveling their forts to the ground.
Centuries later, in 1255/1839, the Aqa Khan of Mahalat in Persia, who
belonged to the Nizaris, rebelled against Muhammad Shah Qajar in Kerman, but he
was defeated and fled to Bombay. There he propagated his Batini-Nizari cause
which continues to this day. The Nizaris are today called the Aqa Khanids.
The Musta'lis. The Musta'lis were the followers of al-Musta'li. Their
imamate continued during Fatimid rule in Egypt until it was brought to an end in
the year 567/1171. Shortly thereafter, the Bohra sect, following the same
school, appeared in India and survives to this day.
The Druzes. The Druzes, who live in the Druze mountains in Syria (and
also in Lebanon), were originally followers of the Fatimid caliphs. But as a
result of the missionary activity of Nashtakin, the Druzes joined the Batini
sect. The Druzes stop with the sixth Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi'llah, whom
others believe to have been killed, and claim that he is in occultation. He has
ascended to heaven and will appear once again to the world.
The Muqanna'ah. The Muqanna'ah were at first disciples of 'Ata'
al-Marwi known as Muqanna', who according to historical sources was a follower
of Abu Muslim of Khurasan. After the death of Abu Muslim, Muqanna' claimed that
Abu Muslim's soul had become incarnated in him. Soon he claimed to be a prophet
and later a divinity. Finally, in the year 162/777 he was surrounded in the fort
of Kabash in Transoxiana. When he became certain that he would be captured and
killed, he threw himself into a fire along with some of his disciples and burned
to death. His followers soon adopted Isma'ilism and the ways of the Batinis.
Differences Between Twelve-Imam Shi'ism and
Isma'ilism and Zaydism
The majority of the Shi'ites, from whom the previously mentioned groups have
branched out, are Twelve-Imam Shi'ites, also called the Imamites. As has already
been mentioned, the Shi'ites came into being because of criticism and protest
concerning two basic problems of Islam, without having any objections to the
religious ways which through the instructions of the Prophet had become
prevalent among their contemporary Muslims. These two problems concerned Islamic
government and authority in the religious sciences, both of which the Shi'ites
considered to be the particular right of the Household of the Prophet.
The Shi'ites asserted that the Islamic caliphate, of which esoteric guidance
and spiritual leadership are inseparable elements, belongs to Ali and his
descendants. They also believed that according to the specification of the
Prophet the Imams of the Household of the Prophet are twelve in number. Shi'ism
held, moreover, that the external teachings of the Quran, which are the
injunctions and regulations of the Shari'ah and include the principles of a
complete spiritual life, are valid and applicable for everyone at all times, and
are not to be abrogated until the Day of Judgment. These injunctions and
regulations must be learned through the guidance of the Household of the
Prophet.
From a consideration of these points it becomes clear that the difference
between Twelve-Imam Shi'ism and Zaydism is that the Zaydis usually do not
consider the imamate to belong solely to the Household of the Prophet and do not
limit the number of Imams to twelve. Also they do not follow the jurisprudence
of the Household of the Prophet as do the Twelve-Imam Shi'ites.
The difference between the Twelve-Imam Shi'ism and Isma'ilism lies in that
for the latter the imamate revolves around the number seven and prophecy does
not terminate with the Holy Prophet Muhammad. Also for them, change and
transformation in the injunctions of the Shari'ah are admissible, as is even
rejection of the duty of following Shari'ah, especially among the Batinis. In
contrast, the Twelve-Imam Shi'ites consider the Prophet to be the "seal of
prophecy" and believe him to have twelve successors and executors of his will.
They hold the external aspect of the Shari'ah to be valid and impossible to
abrogate. They affirm that the Quran has both an exoteric and an esoteric
aspect.
Summary of the History of Twelve-Imam Shi'ism
As has become clear form the previous pages, the majority of Shi'ites are
Twelvers. They were originally the same group of friends and supporters of Ali
who, after the death of the Prophet, in order to defend the right of the
Household of the Prophet in the question of the caliphate and religious
authority, began to criticize and protest against prevalent views and separated
from the majority of the people.
During the caliphate of the "rightly-guided caliphs" (11/632-35/656) the
Shi'ites were under a certain amount of pressure which became much greater
during the Umayyad Caliphate (40/661-132/750) when they were no longer protected
in any way against destruction of their lives and property. Yet the greater the
pressure placed upon them, the firmer they became in their belief. They
especially benefited from their being oppressed in spreading their beliefs and
teachings.
From the middle of the 2nd/8th century when the Abbasid caliphs established
their dynasty, Shi'ism was able to gain a mew life as a result of the languid
and weak state prevailing at that time. Soon, however, conditions became
difficult once again and until the end of the 3rd/9th century became ever more
stringent.
At the beginning of the 4th/10th century, with the rise of the influential
Buyids, who were Shi'ites, Shi'ism gained power and became more or less free to
carry out its activities. It began to carry out scientific and scholarly debates
and continued in this manner until the end of the 5th/11th century. At the
beginning of the 7th/13th century when the Mongol invasion began, as a result of
the general involvement in war and chaos and the continuation of the Crusades,
the different Islamic governments did not put too great a pressure upon the
Shi'ites. Moreover, the conversion to Shi'ism of some Mongol rulers in Persia
and the rule of the Sadat-i Mar'ashi (who were Shi'ites) in Mazandaran were
instrumental in the spread of the power and territory of Shi'ism. They made the
presence of large concentrations of Shi'ite population in Persia and other
Muslim lands felt more than ever before. This situation continued through the
9th/15th century.
At the beginning of the 10th/16th century, as a result of the rise of the
Safavids, Shi'ism became the official religion of the vast territories of Persia
and continues in this position to the present day. In other regions of the world
also there are tens of millions of Shi'ites.
PART II: SHI'ITE RELIGIOUS THOUGHT
CHAPTER III THREE METHODS OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT
By "religious thought" we mean that form of thought which is concerned with
any of the problems of a religious nature within a particular religion, in the
same sense that mathematical thought is the form of thought which deals with
mathematical questions and solves mathematical problems.
Needless to say religious thought, like other forms of thought, must have
reliable sources from which the raw material of its thought originates and upon
which it depends. Similarly, the process of reasoning necessary for the solution
of mathematical problems must have a series of established mathematical facts
and principles.
The single source upon which the divinely revealed religion of Islam depends
and upon which it is based, inasmuch as it is based on a revelation of celestial
origin, is none other than the Holy Quran. It is the Quran which is the
definitive testament of the universal and ever-living prophethood of the Prophet
and it is the content of the Quran that bears the substance of the Islamic call.
Of course the fact that the Quran is alone the source of Islamic religious
thought does not eliminate other sources and origins of correct thinking, as
will be explained later.
There are three methods of religious thought in Islam. The Holy Quran in its
teachings points to three paths for Muslims to follow in order to comprehend the
purposes of religion and the Islamic sciences: (1) the path of the external and
formal aspect of religion (the Shari'ah); (2) the path of intellectual
understanding; and (3) the path of spiritual comprehension achieved through
sincerity (ikhlas) in obeying God.
It can be seen that the Holy Quran in its formal aspect addresses all people
without providing any demonstration or proof. Rather, depending on the unique
sovereignty of God, it commands people to accept the principles of faith such as
divine unity, prophethood, eschatology; it gives them practical injunctions such
as the daily prayers, fasting, etc.; and at the same time it prohibits them from
committing certain other actions. Yet if the Quran had not provided authority
for these commands it would never have expected man to accept and obey them. It
must, therefore, be said that such simple utterances of the Quran are a path
toward the understanding of ultimate religious ends and the comprehension of the
Islamic sciences. We call such verbal expressions as "Believe in God and His
Prophet" and "Perform the prayers," the external or formal aspect of religion.
In addition to guidance in the external aspect of religion, we see that the
Holy Quran in many verses guides man toward intellectual understanding. It
invites man to meditate, contemplate and deliberate upon the signs of God in the
macrocosm and the microcosm. It explains many verities through unfettered
intellectual reasoning. It must be said in truth that no sacred book praises and
recommends science and intellectual knowledge for man as much as does the Quran.
In many of its words and utterances the Quran attests to the validity of
intellectual proof and rational demonstration, that is, it does not claim that
man should first accept the validity of the Islamic sciences and then through
intellectual proofs justify these sciences. Rather, with complete confidence in
the truth of its own position it proclaims that man should use his intellect to
discover the truth of the Islamic sciences, and only then accept this truth. He
should seek the affirmation of the words contained in the Islamic message in the
world of creation which is itself a truthful witness. And finally man should
find the affirmation of his faith in the results of rational demonstration ; he
should not have to gain faith first and the, in obedience to it, seek proofs.
Thus philosophical thought is also a way whose validity and efficacy is
confirmed by the Holy Quran.
Also, in addition to guidance in the external and intellectual aspects of
religion, we see that the Holy Quran in subtle terms explains that all true
religious science originates and comes from Divine Unity (tawhid) and the
knowledge of god and His Attributes . The perfection of the knowledge of God
belongs to those whom He has drawn from all places and elevated solely to
Himself. It is these men who have forgotten themselves and all things and as a
result of sincerity in obedience to God have been able to concentrate all their
powers and energies upon the transcendent world. Their eyes have become
illuminated through the vision of the light of the Pure Creator. With the eye of
discernment they have seen the reality of things in the kingdom of heaven and
earth, for through sincerity of obedience they have reached the station of
certainty (yaqin). As a result of this certainty the kingdoms of heaven
and earth and the immortal life of the eternal world have become revealed to
them.
Deliberation upon the following holy verses illuminates fully this claim:
"And We sent no messenger before thee but We inspired him (saying): There is no
God save Me (Allah), so worship Me" (Quran, XXI, 25); and, "Glorified be Allah
from that which they attribute (unto Him), Save single-minded slaves of Allah"
(Quran, XXXVII, 159-160); and, "Say, I am only a mortal like you. My Lord
inspireth in me that your God is only One God. And whoever hopeth for the
meeting with his Lord, let him do righteous work, and make none sharer of the
worship due unto his Lord" (Quran, XVIII, 111); and, "And serve the Lord till
the inevitable [al-yaqin] cometh unto thee" (Quran, XV, 99); and God says, "Thus
did We show Abraham the Kingdom of the heavens and the earth that he might be of
those possessing certainty" (Quran, VI, 76); and "Nay, but the record of the
righteous is in 'Iliyin - Ah! what will convey unto thee what 'Iliyin is! - A
written record, attested by those who are brought near (unto their Lord)"
(Quran, LXXXIII, 18-21); and, "Nay, would that ye knew (now) with a sure
knowledge ['ilm al-yaqin]! Ye will behold hellfire" (Quran, XII, 5-6).
Thus it may be said that one of the paths for the comprehension of religious
verities and sciences is the purification of the carnal soul and sincerity in
obedience to God.
From what has been said it becomes clear that the Holy Quran proposes three
methods for the comprehension of religious truths: the external, or formal
aspects of religion; intellectual reasoning; and sincerity in obedience leading
to the intellectual intuition which results in the unveiling of the truth and
its inward vision. Yet it must be understood that these three methods differ
from each other in several ways. For instance, since the external forms of
religion are verbal expressions in the simplest language, they are in the hands
of all people, and everyone benefits from them according to his own capacity. On
the other hand, the other two paths, which are appropriate to a particular group
(the elite - khawass), are not common to all. The path of the external
forms of religion leads to the understanding of the principles and the
obligations of Islam and results in knowledge of the substance of the beliefs
and practices of Islam, and of the principles of the Islamic sciences, ethics,
and jurisprudence. This is in contrast to the other two paths. The intellectual
path can discover the problems connected with faith, ethics, and the general
principles governing practical questions, but the intellectual method cannot
discover the specific religious injunctions given in the Quran and the Sunnah.
The path of purification of the carnal soul, since it leads to the discovery of
God-given spiritual truths, can have no limits nor measure of its results or of
the truths revealed through this divine gift. Men who have reached this
knowledge have cut themselves off from everything and forgotten everything but
God and are under the direct guidance and dominion of God Himself - May His Name
be Glorified. Whatever He wants and not what they want is revealed to them.
We will now take up in detail the three methods of religious thought in
Islam.
FIRST METHOD: THE FORMAL ASPECT OF RELIGION
The Different Facets of the Formal Aspect of Religion
It has become clear from what has been said thus far that the Holy Quran,
which is the principal source of religious thought in Islam, has given full
authority to the external meanings of its words for those who give ear to its
message. The same external meaning of the Quranic verses has made the sayings of
the Prophet complementary to the words of the Quran and has declared them to be
authoritative like the Quran. For as the Quran says: "And We have revealed unto
thee the Remembrance that thou mayst explain to mankind that which hath been
revealed for them" (Quran, XVI, 44). And, "He it is who hath sent among the
unlettered ones a messenger of their own, to recite unto them His revelations
and to make them grow, and to teach them the scripture and Wisdom" (Quran, LXII,
2). And, "And whatsoever the messenger giveth you, take it. And whatsoever he
forbiddeth, abstain (from it)" (Quran, LIX, 7). And, "Verily in the messenger of
Allah ye have a good example" (Quran, XXXIII, 21).
It is quite evident that such verses would not have any real meaning if the
words and deeds of the Prophet and even his silence and approval were not
authority for us just as the Quran itself is. Thus the words of the Prophet are
authoritative and must be accepted by those who have heard them orally or
received them through reliable transmission. Moreover, through such a completely
authentic chain of transmission it is known that the Holy Prophet said, "I leave
two things of value amidst you in trust which if you hold on to you will never
go astray: the Quran and the members of my household. These will never be
separated until the Day of Judgment." According to this and other definitely
established hadiths the words of the Family of the Household of the Prophet form
a corpus that is complementary to the Prophetic religious sciences and are
inerrant in the explanation of the teachings and injunctions of Islam. Their
sayings, received orally or through reliable transmission, are reliable and
authoritative.
Therefore, it is clear that the traditional source from which the formal and
external aspect of religion is derived, which is an authoritative document and
which is also the basic source for the religious thought of Islam, consists of
two parts: The Book (the Quran) and the Sunnah. By the Book is meant the
external aspect of the verses of the Holy Quran; and by the Sunnah, hadith
received from the Prophet and his revered Household.
Traditions of the Companions
In Shi'ism hadiths transmitted through the companions are dealt with
according to this principle: if they deal with the words and actions of the
Prophet and do not contradict the hadiths of the Household of the Prophet, they
are acceptable. If they contain only the views or opinions of the companions
themselves and not those of the Prophet, they are not authoritative as sources
for religious injunctions. In this respect the ruling of the companions is like
the ruling of any other Muslim. In the same way, the companions themselves dealt
with other companions in questions of Islamic law as they would with any Muslim,
not as someone special.
The Book and Tradition
The Book of God, the Holy Quran, is the principal source of every form of
Islamic thought. It is the Quran which gives religious validity and authority to
every other religious source in Islam. Therefore, it must be comprehensible to
all. Moreover, the Quran describes itself as the light which illuminates all
things. Also it challenges men and requests them to ponder over its verses and
observe that there are no disparities or contradictions in them. It invites them
to compose similar work, if they can, to replace it. It is clear that if the
Holy Quran were not comprehensible to all there would be no place for such
assertions.
To say that the Quran is in itself comprehensible to all is not in any way
contradictory to the previous assertion that the Prophet and his Household are
religious authorities in the Islamic sciences, which sciences in reality are
only elaborations of the content of the Quran. For instance, in the part of the
Islamic sciences which comprises the injunctions and laws of the Shari'ah, the
Quran contains only the general principles. The clarification and elaboration of
their details, such as the manner of accomplishing the daily prayers, fasting,
exchanging merchandise, and in fact all acts of worship ('ibadat) and
transactions (mu'amalat), can be achieved only by referring to the
traditions of the Holy Prophet and his Household.
As for the other part of the Islamic sciences dealing with doctrines and
ethical methods and practices, although their content and details can be
comprehended by all, the understanding of their full meaning depends on
accepting the method of the Household of the Prophet. Also each verse of the
Quran must be explained and interpreted by means of other Quranic verses, not by
views which have become acceptable and familiar to us only through habit and
custom.
Ali has said: "Some parts of the Quran speak with other parts of it revealing
to us their meaning and some parts attest to the meaning of others." And the
Prophet has said, "Parts of the Quran verify other parts." And also: "Whosoever
interprets the Quran according to his own opinion has made a place for himself
in the fire."
As a simple example of the Quran through the Quran may be cited the story of
the torture of the people of Lot about whom in one place God says, "And we
rained on them a rain," and in another place He has changed this phrase to, "Lo!
We sent a storm of stones upon them (all)." By relating the second verse to the
first it becomes clear that by "rain" is meant "stones" from heaven. Whoever has
studied with care the hadiths of the Household of the Prophet, and the
outstanding companions who were the followers of the Prophet, will have no doubt
that the commentary of the Quran through the Quran is the sole method of Quranic
commentary taught by the Household of the Prophet.
The Outward and Inward Aspects of the Quran
It has been explained that the Holy Quran elucidates religious aims through
its own words and gives commands to mankind in matter of doctrine and action.
But the meaning of the Quran is not limited to this level. Rather, behind these
same expressions and within these same meanings there are deeper and wider
levels of meaning which only the spiritual elite who possess pure hearts can
comprehend.
The Prophet, who is the divinely appointed teacher of the Quran, says: "The
Quran has a beautiful exterior and a profound interior." He has also said, "The
Quran has an inner dimension, and that inner dimension has an inner dimension up
to seven numerous references to the inner aspect of the Quran.
The main support of these assertions is a symbol which God has mentioned in
Chapter XIII, verse 17, of the Quran. In this verse divine gifts are symbolized
by rain that falls from heaven and upon which depends the life of the earth and
its inhabitants. With the coming of the rain, floods begin to flow and each
river bed accepts a certain amount of the flood, depending on its capacity. As
it flows, the flood is covered with foam, but beneath the foam there is that
same water which is life-giving and beneficial to mankind.
As is indicated by this symbolic story, the capacity for comprehension of
divine sciences, which are the source of man's inner life, differs among people.
There are those for whom there is no reality beyond physical existence and the
material life of this world which lasts but a few days. Such people are attached
to material appetites and physical desires alone and fear nothing but the loss
of material benefits and sensory enjoyment. Such people, taking into
consideration the differences of degree among them, can at best accept the
divine sciences on the level of believing in a summary fashion in the doctrines
and performing the practical commands of Islam in purely outward manner without
any comprehension. They worship God with the hope of recompense or fear of
punishment in the next world.
There are also those who, because of the purity of their nature, do not
consider their well-being to lie in attachment to the transient pleasures of the
fleeting life of this world. The losses and gains and bitter and sweet
experiences of this world are for them no more than an attractive illusion.
Memory of those who passed before them in the caravan of existence, who were
pleasure-seekers yesterday and no more than subjects of stories today, is a
warning that is continuously present before their eyes. Such men who possess
pure hearts are naturally attracted to the world of eternity. They view the
different phenomena of this passing world as symbols and portents of the higher
world, not as persisting and independent realities.
It is at this point that through earthly and heavenly signs, signs upon the
horizons and within the souls of men, they "observe" in a spiritual vision the
Infinite Light of the Majesty and Glory of God. Their hearts become completely
enamored with the longing to reach an understanding of the secret symbols of
creation. Instead of being imprisoned in the dark and narrow well of personal
gain and selfishness they begin to fly in the unlimited space of the world of
eternity and advance ever onwards toward the zenith of the spiritual world.
When they hear that God has forbidden the worship of idols, which outwardly
means bowing down before an idol, they understand this command to mean that they
should not obey other than God, for to obey means to bow down before someone and
to serve him. Beyond that meaning they understand that they should not have hope
of fear of other than God; beyond that, they should not surrender to the demands
of their selfish appetites; and beyond that, they should not concentrate on
anything except God, May His Name be Glorified.
Likewise when they hear from the Quran that they should pray, the external
meaning of which is to perform the particular rites of prayers, through its
inner meaning they comprehend that they must worship and obey God with all their
hearts and souls. Beyond that they comprehend that before God they must consider
themselves as nothing, must forget themselves and remember only God.
It can be seen that the inner meaning present in these two examples is not
due to the outward expression of the command and prohibition in question. Yet
the comprehension of this meaning is unavoidable for anyone who has begun to
meditate upon a more universal order and has preferred to gain a vision of the
universe of reality rather than his own ego, who has preferred objectivity to an
egocentric subjectivism.
From this discussion the meaning of the outward and inward aspects of the
Quran has become clear. It has also become evident that the inner meaning of the
Quran does no eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like
the soul which gives life to the body. Islam, which is a universal and eternal
religion and places the greatest emphasis upon the "reformation" of mankind, can
never dispense with its external laws which are for the benefit of society, nor
with its simple doctrines which are the guardians and preservers of these laws.
How can a society, on the pretense that religion is only a matter of the
heart, that man's heart should be pure and that there is no value to actions,
live in disorder and yet attain happiness? How can impure deeds and words cause
the cultivation of a pure heart? Or how can impure words emanate from a pure
heart? God says in His Book, "Vile women are for vile men, and vile men for vile
women. Good women are for good men, and good men for good women." (Quran, XXIV,
26) He also says, "As for the good land, its vegetation cometh forth by
permission of its Lord; while as for that which is bad, only evil cometh forth
(from it)." (Quran, VII, 58) Thus it becomes evident that the Holy Quran has an
outward and an inward aspect and the inward aspect itself has different levels
of meaning. The hadith literature, which explains the content of the Quran, also
contains these various aspects.
The Principles of Interpretation of the Quran
At the beginning of Islam it was commonly believed by some Sunnis that if
there was sufficient reason one could ignore the outward meaning of Quranic
verses and ascribe to them a contrary meaning. Usually the meaning which opposed
the outward, literal meaning was called ta'wil, and what is called "ta'wil of
the Quran" in Sunni Islam is usually understood in this sense.
In the religious works of Sunni scholars, as well as in the controversies
that have been recorded as taking place between different schools, one often
observes that if a particular point of doctrine (that has been established
through the consensus of the ulama of a school or through some other means) is
opposed to the outward meaning of a verse of the Quran, that verse is
interpreted by ta'wil to have a meaning contrary to its apparent meaning.
Sometimes two contending sides support two opposing views and present Quranic
verses in proof of their contentions. Each side interprets the verses presented
by the other side through ta'wil. This method has also penetrated more or less
into Shi'ism and can be seen in some Shi'ite theological works.
Yet, sufficient deliberation upon Quranic verses and the hadith of the
Household of the Prophet demonstrates clearly that the Holy Quran with its
attractive language and eloquent and lucid expression never uses enigmatic or
puzzling methods of exposition and always expounds any subject in a language
suitable for that subject. What has been rightly called ta'wil, or hermeneutic
interpretation, of the Holy Quran is not concerned simply with the denotation of
words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend
the comprehension of the common run of men ; yet it is from these truths and
realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the
Quran issue forth.
The whole of the Quran possesses the sense of ta'wil, of esoteric meaning,
which cannot be comprehended directly through human thought alone. Only the
prophets and the pure among the saints of God who are free from the dross of
human imperfection can contemplate these meanings while living on the present
plane of existence. On the Day of Resurrection the ta'wil of the Quran will be
revealed to everyone.
This assertion can be explained by pointing to the fact that what forces man
to use speech, create words and make use of expressions is nothing other than
his social and material needs. In his social life man is forced to try to make
his fellow-men understand his thoughts and intentions and the feelings which
exist within his soul. To accomplish this end he makes use of sounds and
hearing. Occasionally also he uses to a degree his eyes and gestures. That is
why between the mute and the blind there can never be any mutual comprehension,
for whatever the blind man says the deaf cannot hear, and whatever the mute
makes understood through gestures the blind man cannot see.
The creation of words and the naming of objects have been accomplished with a
material end in view. Expressions have been created for those objects, states,
and conditions which are material and available to the senses or near to the
sensible world. As can be seen in those cases where the person addressed lacks
one of the physical senses, if we wish to speak of matters which can be
comprehended through the missing sense we employ a kind of allegory and
similitude. For example, if we wish to describe light or color to one who is
born blind, or the pleasures of sex to a child that has not reached the age of
adolescence, we seek to achieve our purpose through comparison and allegory and
through providing examples.
Therefore, if we accept the hypothesis that in the scale of Universal
Existence there are immense levels of reality which are independent of the world
of matter (and this is in reality the case), and that in each generation there
are among mankind but a handful who have the capability of comprehending and
having a vision of these realities, then questions pertaining to these higher
worlds cannot be understood through common verbal expressions and modes of
thought. They cannot be referred to except by allusion and through symbolism.
Since religious realities are of this kind, the expression of the Quran in such
matters must of necessity be symbolic.
God says in his book, "Lo! We have appointed it a Lecture in Arabic that
haply ye may understand. And Lo! in the Source of Decrees, which We possess, it
is indeed sublime, decisive." (Common comprehension cannot understand it or
penetrate into it.) (Quran, XLIII, 3-4) He also says, "That (this) is indeed a
noble Quran, In a book kept hidden, Which none toucheth save the purified"
(Quran, LVI, 77-79). Concerning the Prophet and his Household he says, "Allah's
wish is but to remove uncleanness far from you, O Folk of the Household, and
cleanse you with a thorough cleansing" (Quran, XXXIII, 33).
As proved by these verses, the Holy Quran emanates from sources beyond the
comprehension of common man. No one can have a full comprehension of the Quran
save those servants of God whom He has chosen to purify. And the Household of
the Prophet are among those pure beings.
In another place God says, "Nay, but they denied that (the Quran), the
knowledge whereof they could not compass, and whereof the interpretation (in
events) [ta'wil] hath not yet come into them" (Quran, X, 40) (meaning the day of
Resurrection when the truth of things will become known). And again he says, "On
the day (the Day of Resurrection) when the fulfillment [ta'wil] thereof (of the
whole Quran) cometh, those who were before forgetful thereof will say: The
messengers of our Lord did bring the Truth!" (Quran, VII, 53)
Hadith
The principle that the hadith possesses validity, as attested by the Quran,
is not at all disputed among Shi'ites or in fact among all Muslims. But because
of the failure of some of the early rulers of Islam in preserving and guarding
the hadith, and the excesses of a group among the companions and followers of
the Prophet in propagating hadith literature, the corpus of hadith came to face
a certain number of difficulties.
On the one hand the caliphs of the time prevented the writing down and
recording of the hadith and ordered any pages containing texts of hadith to be
burned. Sometimes also any increase in activity in the transmission and study of
hadith was forbidden. In this way a certain number of hadiths were forgotten or
lost and a few were even transmitted with a different or distorted meaning. On
the other hand another tendency also prevailed among another group of the
companions of the Holy Prophet who had had the honor of seeing his presence and
actually hearing his words. This group, which was respected by the caliphs and
the Muslim community, began an intense effort to propagate the hadith. This was
carried to such an extent that sometimes hadith overruled the Quran and the
injunction of a Quranic verse was even considered abrogated by some people
through a hadith. Often the transmitters of hadith would travel many miles and
bear all the difficulties of traveling in order to hear a single saying.
A group of outsiders who had worn the dress of Islam and also some of the
enemies within ranks of Islam began to change and distort some of the hadith and
thus diminished the reliability and validity of the hadith that was then heard
and known. For this very reason Islamic scholars began to think of a solution.
They created the sciences concerned with the biography of learned men and chains
of transmission of hadith in order to be able to discriminate between true and
false hadith.
The Method of Shi'ism in Authenticating the Hadith
Shi'ism, in addition to seeking to authenticate the chain transmission of
hadith, considers the correlation of the text of the hadith with the Quran as a
necessary condition for its validity. In Shi'ite sources there are many hadiths
of the Prophet and the Imams with authentic chains of transmission which
themselves assert that a hadith contrary to the Quran has no value. Only that
hadith can be considered valid which is in agreement with the Quran.
Basing itself on these hadiths, Shi'ism does not act upon those hadiths which
are contrary to the text of the Quran. As for the hadiths whose agreement or
disagreement cannot be established, according to instructions received from
Imams they are passed by in silence without being accepted or rejected. Needless
to say there are also within Shi'ism those who, like a group among the Sunnis,
act on any hadith whatsoever which they happen to find in different traditional
sources.
The Method of Shi'ism in Following the Hadith
A hadith heard directly from the mouth of the Prophet or one of the Imams is
accepted as is the Quran. As for hadiths received through intermediaries, the
majority of Shi'ites act upon them if their chain of transmission is established
at every step or if there exists definite proof concerning their truth, and, if
they are concerned with principles of doctrine which require knowledge and
certainty, according to the text of the Quran. Other than these two kinds of
hadith, no other hadith has any validity concerning principles of doctrine, the
invalid hadith being called "tradition with a single transmitter" (khabar
wahid). However, in establishing the injunctions of the Shari'ah, because of
reasons that have been given, Shi'ites act also on a tradition which is
generally accepted as reliable. Therefore it can be said that for Shi'ism a
certain and definitely established hadith is absolutely binding and must be
followed, while a hadith which is not absolutely established but which is
generally considered as reliable is utilized only in the elaboration of the
injunctions of the Shari'ah.
Learning and Teaching in Islam
To acquire knowledge is a religious duty in Islam. The Prophet has said, "To
seek knowledge is incumbent upon every Muslim." According to fully established
hadiths which elucidate the meaning of this saying, knowledge here means the
three principles of Islam : unity or tawhid ; prophecy or nubuwwat; and
eschatology or ma'ad. In addition to these principles, Muslims are expected to
acquire knowledge of the subsidiary branches and the details of the injunctions
and laws of Islam according to their individual circumstances and needs.
It is clear that acquiring knowledge of the principles of religion, even if
it be in summary fashion, is possible to a certain extent for everyone. But
acquiring detailed knowledge of the injunctions and laws of religion through use
of the basic documents of the Book and the Sunnah and technical reasoning based
upon them (or what is called demonstrative jurisprudence, fiqh-i istidlali
) is not possible for every Muslim. Only a few persons have the capacity for
demonstrative jurisprudence, nor is such acquiring of detailed knowledge
required of everyone, for there are no injunctions in Islam requiring one to do
what lies beyond his abilities.
Therefore, the study of Islamic injunctions and laws through reasoning has
been limited through the principle of "sufficient necessity" (wajib-i
kifa'i) to those individuals who have the necessary capability and are
worthy of such study. The duty of the rest of the people, according to the
general principle of the necessity for the ignorant to depend on the one who
knows, is to seek guidance from capable and worthy men of learning, who are
called mujtahids and faqihs. This act of following mujtahids is called
imitation or taqlid. Of course this imitation differs from imitation in
the principles of religious knowledge which is forbidden according to the very
text of the Quran, "(O man), follow not that where