According to the teachings of Holy Qur'an, the kings, the hypocrites, the economic and mercantile crooks are involved in "Fasad" (corruption) on earth. But the prophets of Allah have the duty to clear the face of the planet from oppression and corruption. Hence, the Muslims are instructed not to question the legitimacy of their own anti-oppression movements but they are required to take extreme care not to be misled when choosing their models and methods.
Imam Husayn (A), as the greatest and the most' sincere revolutionary in history is the best model for the Muslims, and even for the oppressed non-Muslims seeking justice.
In political science, one can classify the movements based on different yardsticks such as history or class ideology. The movements are also classified based on their nature and their goals. In political science, the movements are usually evaluated on the basis of this yardstick. In the words of some of the Imams too the social and political movements are classified based on this yardstick.
Imam Husayn (A) has classified the social and political movements in a very brief and comprehensive manner. Among these movements, he has approved of only one movement and has described his own movement as belonging to the same category. In Imam's view, the only true movement and revolution is one which he calls "reform-oriented revolt". Imam Husayn (A) has high praise for this type of revolution; for him it is immaterial whether this kind of reform oriented revolution will succeed and will bring about a social revolution in the society or it is suppressed in its early stages. In the Qur'anic sense and in the Islamic culture, "Islah" dose not mean "reform", Islah is not mentioned in contrast to "revolution". Muslih (the person calling for Islah) is that revolutionary beliver who engages in action with the intention to gain the contentment of Allah and to fulfit his divine duty.
The late Imam Khomeini (R.) brought about a deep and extensive transformation in the general approach to the relation between religion and politics. He chose Ashura as the first and most important framework for reviving the forgotten dimensions of the politics of Islam.
The discussion over the relationship between religion and politics in the history of Islamic thought dates back to centuries ago. It was a great tragedy for Islam when the clergy and the nation accepted the idea of the separation of religion and politics.
Here the great role as played by the late Imam Khomeini (R.) in reviving the political approach to Ashura becomes clear. This revival not only increased the value of revolt as a tool to gain freedom and justice, but it also legitimized the struggle against an oppressive ruler.
In the 19th century and a little before that, there existed between Iran and its neighbors (the Emirates of Bukhara and Khiva) economic, Trade and cultural relations. As a result of wars and the existence of this relationship, some Iranians (Persians, Kurds, Azeris and Turks), voluntarily and due to various factors, emigrated to Central Asia. As a result, in the second half of the 19th century a class of Iranians came into existence in the cities of Bukhara and Khiva. Among the people of Iranian origin settled in Central Asia were the descendants of the soldiers of Nadir Shah, the officers of the Qajar army and immigrants from north eastern cities who had emigrated to Bukhara. Most of them were traders and craftsmen. During the first phase of immigration, the immigrant Iranians were bought and sold like slaves, But through this channel they were able to rise to important positions, for example, one of the viziers (Khishbaigi) of the Emirate of Bukhara was an Iranian immigrant. As a result, till the time of the Russian occupation of Bukhara, Iranians were present in the military government setup of the Emirate of Bukhara. But in other parts of the fiefdoms of Khiva and Khukqand, Iranians were exploited. After the occupation of Central Asia, the Military Government of Russia freed the slaves and prohibited their trade. In cities such as Bukhara, Samarqand and areas near to them there existed localities of Iranians. This process began in the 16th century when Iranians emigrated from Merv. In this manner Iranian tribes came to exist in Bukhara and Samarqand. But with the passage of time, as a result of intermarrying with the local population, some of them lost their anthropologic peculiarities, and only the language of their forefathers remained. Most of them remained adherents of the Shi'ah creed. Their population at the end of the 19th century was 6000. The Iranians of Samarqand and Bukhara also fully adhered to the Shi'ah creed.
They, especially the women, retained their anthropological peculiarities. The population of Iranians of Samarqand exceeds the figure of ten thousand. They are mostly engaged in weaving, spinning and agriculture.
The third group of Iranian immigrants who lived in the jurisdiction of the fiefdom of Khiva till the early years of the 20th century were called Qul (slave). During the end of the 19th century their population was 3500, which was 1% of the total population of the fiefdom. On the shores of the Caspian Sea too there lived a large number of Iranians. In the year 1883, 1436 Iranians lived in the district of Zekaspi. Many of them were in government service. Some of the wealthy traders of Iranian origin were elected to the Consultative Commitee of the Ashkabad Municipality.
Not only their language and their Iranian origin, but also Shi'ism was a factor responsible for their remaining bound together and unified. In the year 1890 the Iranians built a Husayniyah and held their religious rituals there. The localities where the Iranians lived were named Iran Mahallah. Each year, in these localities, the mourning ceremonies were held during Muharram. The ceremonies were held in all parts of Turkistan, Khajand and the district of Samarqand. But in the year 1901, in some of the Russian inhabited localities of Tashkent in which these ceremonies used to take place, the military administrator of Turkistan prohibited these ceremonies and the daily newspaper Rusky Turkistan printed this news. But the brave Iranians of all the big ciries of Turkistan were able to build Husayniyahs which the local people called Mosque of the Shi'ahs.
Most of these Husayniyahs were built by traders and wealthy Iranians. In the year 1905 one of the Iranians of Tashkent filed a petition for a piece of land for constructing a Husayniyah.
In this manner the culture of Ashura spread in Central Asia and played an important role in unifying the Muslims. With the beginning of Ashura Ceremonies, the Muslims openly expressed their grief and sorrow. Only such kind of ceremonies were able to strengthen the unity of the Iranians in Central Asia.
In the article whose abstract has been provided here, issues have been dealt with from a historical point of view by relying on documents of the archives and by providing accurate and scientific referencing based on these archives and the libraries of the erstwhile Soviet Union, specially those of Samarqand, Bukhara and Tashkent.
The paper begins with a brief introduction. Then it begins to define and dichotomize the problem of distortion into two different categories: distortions related to the semantic issues, and distortions related to the content. I will mention two examples of what constitutes a semantic distortion and then I will discuss 24 events in Ashura that have been the subject of distortions. Then I will concentrate on the definition of the distortions of the content and I will provide some' examples. I will move on to discuss two types of distortions of the content in the events that occurred on Ashura and will mention examples of both types.
In the second section, I will mention five factors leading to distortions I will then point out four factors which have contributed to the propagation of lies. Finally, I will deal with the distortion in the poems. In this section, I will mention nine poems that convey ignobility and lack of dignity and point to eight poems that contain lies. The paper ends with an invitation to further meticulous research on the events of Ashura of Imam Husayn (A)
In this study of the pre-Islamic history of the term, the author first examines the statements of the lexicographers in this regard. In the lexicons, the word "Ashura" is generally used for the tenth day of Muharram and its different readings are mentioned. Similarly, "Taasu'a" is also used as the name for the ninth day of Muharram. In some lexicons, some great and auspicious events are ascribed to this day, such as the creation of Adam, the acceptance of his repentance by God, the flood of Noah, the (future) descent of Jesus from the heaven, the appearance of Dajjal and the like. This however is not confirmed by our authentic traditions.
Some are of the opinion that this word is of Islamic origin and did not exist before Islam. Some believe it is not basically an original Arabic word and, moreover, it does not occur in traditions that predicted the events of Karbala.
In the books of the Ahl al-Sunnah, including those pertaining to tradition, lexicography, etc. there exist no mention of the episode of Karbala and the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali (A) in the studies of this word.
The pre-Islamic Jews fasted on this day and it was considered a day of great importance by them. According to them it was the day on which Moses (A) overcame Pharaoh.
During the pagan era of the Jahiliyyah, the Quraysh fasted on this day and its fast was emphasized upon after the advent of Islam until the fasting through the month of Ramadan was made obligatory. Thereafter the fast of Ashura was abandoned.
But what was the reason behind the great religious significance of this day? That which can be inferred from the corpus of related traditions is that the significance attached to this day since the era of Moses was on account of the episode of Karbala.
After the event of Karbala, the Umayyad tried to make this day appear as a day of blessing and this was considered by them the reason for the fast held on this day. However, after the event of Karbala, the Imams forbade the people from fasting on this day.
This paper aims to discuss "the role of Ashura in the Islamic Revolution. A review of the Imam Khomeini's strategy in his struggle against the Pahlavi regime shows that the late Imam (R.) focused on the idea of Ashura in his revolt. Therefore, an inquiry into the life and the ideas of the founder of the Islamic Revolution, as they relate to the influence of Ashura on the Islamic Revolution, is of utmost importance. The present paper is dealing with this issue from two different angles and has come up with two distinct analyses which will be presented after a brief introduction.
1.In the first section, the historical process of the effects of Ashura on the revolution, with special consideration given to the strategy and views of the late Imam (R.), has been given due attention and has been presented under the title "Historical Analysis". In this discussion three historical junctures have been discussed:
The 15th of Khordad of 1342 H. sh. or the point when the sapling of the Islamic Revolution was planted,
The period between the 15th of Khordad of 1342 H.Sh to the Taasu'a and Ashura of the year 1357 or the blossoming of the tree of the Islamic Revolution.
The point of Taasu'a and Ashura of the year 1357 or the point in which the tree of the Islamic Revolution bore fruits.
2.In the second section, I will deal with the effects of Ashura on the Islamic Revolution from the perspective of the late Imam. This analysis pays special attention to the social functions and is indeed entitled as "Sociological Analysis". In this section, I will discuss the social functions of Ashura in the Islamic Revolution as manifested in the gatherings of the people, creating unity, bringing about cohesion, nurturing the spirit of martyrdom-seeking, and so on.
The movement of Ashura, because of its special characteristics, resmebles a torch that lights the path of our eternal mission. This movement has three dimensions that are connected to one another: ideological, social, and political. Each one of these dimensions need to be analyzed from a historical point of view. In the ideological dimension, what we need to know here, is that despite what some might think, the event of Ashura is not the continuation of a historical hosility between the House of Hashim and the House of Umayyads, hut has ideological-religious roots.
The Muslims are of two types, with regard to their faith in Imam Husayn(A):
The first group are the ones that do not believe in the absolute sovereignty (wilayah) of Ma 'summin (the infallible descendants of the Prophet). They agree that Prophet Muhammad (S) loved Imam Husayn (A). They also agree that Imam Husayn (A) was the most pious and devout man. They also believe that there are authentic Hadiths from the Prophet (S) that foretell the events of Taff.
The second group believes in the absolute Wilayah of the Prophet's infallible descendants. This group believes that conduct of all Imams (A), including Imam Husayn (A), was motivated Only by duty. They believe that every detail of this event is significant and possesses meaning. Had there been any other Imam in place of Imam Husayn (A), he would have acted in the same manner that Imam Husayn (A) did. The movement and uprising of Imam Husayn (A) was for enjoining the good and prohibiting the evil. He did not want the seat of government except for correcting what was wrong and for invitiation to truth and blocking falsehood.
In the social and human dimensions, the movement of Ashura is considered in today's world as a model and a lesson for all struggles for justice. Ashura has been turned into a permanent and immortal event because of the sacredness and purity of its aims, highly emotional nature of its details, and the fact that its call strikes the right cord within every individual who hears it.
Finally, from a political point of view, Imam Husayn (A) rose up in order to put an end to a very dangerous deviation in the Islamic government and to prevent the establishment of dynastic rule over the Islamic lands. He refused to sign a covenant with Yazid because he wanted to make sure that the people would begin to question the legitimacy of the rule of the House of Umayyads.
The incident of Karbala is an exceptional event, and in view of the fact that its greatness is unparalleled and unique, its consequences too have been great. Honoring this martyrdom for the sake of rejuvenating its divine ideals and objectives is doubtlessly obligatory.
The motive of Imam Husayn's uprising was to stop a great deviation and an innovation (bid'at) from taking place in the area of Islamic politics. This deviation was such that it threatened the very existence of the Islamic system by placing the reigns of the public affairs of the Muslims in the hands of unqualified persons. The flow of events after the demise of the Noble Prophet (s) was such that eventually it led to the Khilafat becoming a hereditary office and Imam Husay's uprising was a stuggle against this deviation.
The suffering of Karbala, due to its peculiar characteristics, is the greatest and the most painful suffering witnessed in Islamic history. Ashura was one of the Days of God (ayyamullah) and it is necessary that its memory be kept alive. The continuation of the mourning ceremonies of the Leader of the martyrs (salar-e-shahidan) by way of reciting elegies, mourning and causing others to mourn by demonstrating before them the events of Karbala as described in authentic accounts, has a very fundamental objective, which is, mobilizing the people to traverse the path of the Ahl al-Bayt(A), to uphold the Shari'ah, to establish justice and good in the society, and in short, to command good and forbid evil.
One of the peculiar features of the Islamic Revolution of Iran from its very beginning to this date is its direct link with the month of Muharram and the mourning ceremonies of Imam Husayn (A). Accordingly, the manner of conducting these mourning ceremonies, both in from and content, should be in consonance with the objectives of the Islamic Revolution.
One of the duties of Ulama is to stop the intrusion of innovations and deviations in the domain of religion. Among the obvious deviations is the practice of qameh-zani (striking one's head with a dagger) in mourning ceremonies for Imam Husayn (A) and qufl-zani (placing a padlock on their own bodies) both historic and as forthright way of confronting of an Imam with the intention of fulfillment of a prayer and removing it on its fulfillment) witnessed during the commemoration of Imam Husayn's (A) martyrdom. The Shi'ah Ulama, well meaning people and reformers have been distressed about this obvious innovation, (bid'at).
In the area of writing Maqtals, there are over one thousand sources written in Persian or Arabic, by both Shi'ahs and Sunnis.
Maqtal-writing means registering the reports and stories about martyrdom of Imam Husayn (A) and his companions in order to clarify the aims of school of Shi'ism and to ensure the continuation of this school from generation to generation.
Why are Maqtals written?
Clarifying the aims of Ashura, articulating, and pursuing after those goals which can lead to creating social and political consciousness and a strong desire to fight falsehood.
After an analysis of the various stages of this uprising, from its inception to its conclusion, we find that its objective was to direct mankind on the road to real felicity.
The viewpoint of Islam concerning the essence of man, his position in the scheme of things, and his real life and death, all reflect the intrinsic presence of purposefulness and a varioed special potential in him.
That which Imam Husayn (A) was after, was the development in man of a divine concept of his own felicity. The Imam (A) sought the honour of all mankind, and by his own blood he taught them this lesson. He also defined life and death on the basis of this criterion. These qualities, as the analysis of history shows, have, from their very inception to their final crystallization, and finally their performance in various ways, been clearly elucidated.
Since the objective of Imam Husayn (A) has from the very beginning been the felicity of man, both individually and socially, he has throughout the sermons he has given laid emphasis on the concept of government and the leadership of the society, because accepting the authority (wilayat) of the Imams (A) is accompanied by the deliverance of mankind, while rejecting it amounts to its death in the real sense.
The Imam (A) proves in the message of the uprising that the higher levels of human life involve sacrifice, honour, love and reaching the level of wilyat. And considering that these life-giving qualities belong to all human beings, and not just to a people belonging to a particular place or time, every individual who cultivates these qualities will have an eternal life, a life which bestows upon man and the society a perpetual change and development.
The epic of Ashura in Ninavah, by nature, was a replay of a struggle which took place, seventy six years prior to that event, with Prophet Muhammad (S) and the Makkan aristocracy as its main contenders. This struggle, which began in the aftermath of the Badr War, mirrored the archetypal intransigence of the aristocracy against all the divine prophets as much as it mirrored the uncompromising attitude of all the divine prophets in their resolve to change the relations of oppression and establish a system based on justice.
The rulers that immediately succeeded Prophet Muhammad (S) did not strictly follow the example set by him. In many areas, especially in economic areas and the egalitarian principle of Islam, the successors to the Prophet (S) made their own extrapolations which were most of the time against the very views held by Prophet Muhammad (S). To put it mildly, due to their lack of clear understanding of the social principles of Islam, little by little, a prosperous and leisure-loving class emerged which during the rule of Uthman called the shots within the Islamic Ummah.
After Uthman, this "new class" stood as a bulwark blocking the initiatives of Ali Ibn-e Abi Talib (A).
The first address delivered by Imam Ali (A) after he became the Caliph stressed the necessity of changing the social relations that had emerged during the Uthman rule. He especially stressed that the egalitarian policy as practiced during the time of the Prophet(s) had to be re-established.
But the martyrdom of Imam Ali (A) in Kufa mosque put an end to the serious efforts for changing the situation for better. The very Muslims who abandoned Ali (A) in his fight to revive Islam of the Prophet Muhammad (S) would abandon Imam Hasan Mujtaba (A), and in actuality, they did so.
After the death of Mu'awiyah, the pressure was mounted on Imam Husayn (A) to enter a covenant with Yazid. This led to the final confrontation between the Heir of the Prophets, or the Heir of Justice, with the heir of oppression and aristocracy in Karbala. This confrontation forever tied the name of Shi'ism to the concept of justice.
When Imam Husayn(A) talked of the abandoned Ma'ruf (good deed), he meant that justice was abandoned, and in its place evil emerged. With his Ashura, Husayn (A) succeeded in stemming the root of the very evil that his father, Imam Ali (A), tried to eradicate but failed and finally lost his life.
The paper makes a comparative study of the episode of Karbala and the uprising of 15 Khordad and in a general review of the two movements, It introduces the viewpoints offered around three axes:
1.A group considers the two movements as identical and each of them as representative of the other.
2.Another group stresses on the existence of common elements and without mentioning their points of difference considers one of them as derived from the other in content and principles, thus ultimately reaching a conclusion similar to that of the first group.
3.The view of the author, who while accepting some similarities and that too by discounting the features of one of them and considering them as derived from the other, precluded the possibility of their identity by mentioning the points of difference.
With this view, the author, while holding the outlook that no event can be capable of repetition, studies the two events with reference to their background and context, their dominant goals, consequences, while pointing out their similarities and differences.
The author expresses the belief that 'social movements manifest themselves as widespread revolutions which are at times bloody on the realization of the background of oppression in society and the appearance of a leadership appropriate to the historical, social and cultural context of a society with common cultural layers in the sphere of popular belief which bind the people to the emergent leadership'. He notes that despite the common analytic environment of similar social events, identity is impossible due to the continual social, cultural, and historical changes as well as the entry of new elements and factors in every new phenomenon.
The author devotes four sections of his paper to the general caption 'similarities', and while reviewing the characteristics of the two events, considers the background of oppression and injustice' 'religious leadership' 'religious motive in popular movements' and 'social aspect of religion' as the common points of similarity. Thereafter in another four sections of the paper under the general caption of 'dissimilarities' he considers 'the background of the event' 'goals and orientation' and 'the consequences' as the points of difference between the two episodes. From the viewpoint of its development, the episode of Karbala took place within a Muslim society in confrontation with a sovereignty that claimed to be religious and observed the outward precepts of religion. From the viewpoint of goal and orientation, the episode of Karbala had social and cultural goals besides political ones. From the viewpoint of goal and orientation, the episode of Karbala had social and cultural goals besides political ones. From the viewpoint of consequences, the confrontation was so intense as to lead to the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali (A). In these aspects it was completely different from the uprising of 15 Khordad.
In the concluding part, while reviewing the conclusions derived from the similarities and dissimilarities between the episode of Karbala and the uprising of 15 Khordad, the conclusion is that absence of identity between the two events, is a conclusion that is extended to a number of other uprisings and revolts that occurred after the event of Karbala. The paper on the whole contains 5 parts divided in 13 sections.
At the beginning of this paper, I have discussed the role and function of traditions in the preservation and continuation of beliefs and values in a society. After a discussion about Shi'ahs and the rituals, I will draw from the statements by the late founder of the Islamic Revolution to conclude that the rituals, as viewed by the late Imam Khomeini (R.), are "tools for continuing the movement".
Considering the mourning ceremonies for Imam Husayn (A), the paper, inferring from the statements of the late Imam (R.), shows that his approach was based on "increasing the functional value" of this tool. In this area, the late Imam (R.) has suggested two ways for bringing about a transformation:
A: Qualitative Transformation
B: Quantitative Transformation
In the area of qualitative transformation, the late Imam (R.) saw two categories as possessing the highest priority:
1.Purifying the Husayni rituals and immunizing them against distortions and superstitions,
2.Introduction and clarification of the hitherto vastly unknown dimensions of the mourning for Imam Husayn (A).
With regard to the second category, my research on the statements by the late Imam (R.) indicate that the following were the components to his strategy:
clarification of the political dimension of the rituals, the mourning ceremonies and their function in the political mobilization of the masses,
emphasis on the psychological aspects of the Husayni rituals, and the linkage between weeping and the epic of Ashura,
Husayni rituals as the tool for organizing a minority against a majority, for coordination and unity,
Increasing the functional value of this tool through the active presence of the youth.
The paper goes on to add that quantitative transformation, as viewed by the late Imam (R.), will manifest itself in three fields:
increasing the precision and the energy,
increasing the propagation methods,
increasing the number of participants,
"Indeed the mourning for the Master of Martyrs and holding ceremonies in memory of Husayn (A) has safeguarded Islam for the past fourteen centuries."
Imam Khomeini (R.)
The bloody movement of Ashura and the martyrdom of Husayn Ibn Ali (A) and his friends have so far been viewed from different angles. Innumerable books have been written about this movement. After the Ashura of the year 61 H., Shi'ah poets, historians and scholars have written on this great event and have created many works. But as the poem says:
"Ii would be preferable to hear the secrets of the Beloved, in the words of others,"
I have decided to focus on what the Sunni poets, writers and Muhaddiths (reporters of hadith) have written about the movement of Imam Husayn (A).
I have left the analysis of the writings for another occasion and have only covered such important pieces of writing as the elegiac poem by Imam Shafi'i composed in memory of Husayn Ibn Ali (A), some shocking reports on the martyrdom of Imam Husayn (A) by Imam Ahmad Hanbal in his Al-Musnad, the report by Hilal lbn Jinaba Abdi (144 H.), the account by Muhammad Ibn Jarir Tabari (310 H.), the report by Abul-Faraj Isfahani, the report by Zamakhshari, the account by Ibn Hajar Al-Haythami (974 H.), the report by Sibt Ibn al-Jawazi (944 H.) and the account by Jalal al-Din Abd al-Rahman Suyuti (911 H.). Of course, I would like to reiterate that I do not plan to draw any inference from recounting these reports. I have left the analysis to the reader. Finally I have discussed how the great Sunni scholars have mourned the martyrdom of Imam Husayn (A) throughout history.
For a researcher who intends to study the uprising of Imam Husayn (A) academically, and seeks to analyze its many dimensions in an enlightened manner, finding a determining paradigm, a key concept, and a guide that can explain the stand, behaviour and achievement of Imam (A) on their basis, is a perceptible and undeniable need. All these contradictory judgments about the achievement of Imam Husayn(A) are born due to the lack of access to the key determinant in his (A) personality.
Words like chivalry (furusiyyat) in the sense of gallantry and braveness, or the word epic (hamaseh), despite their wide connotations are not that desired key words.
In the opinion of the writer, the uprising of Imam Husayn (A) was a manifestation of manliness (futuwwat), and therefore manliness is the key to the personality of Imam Husayn (A) and a comprehensive paradigm for explaining his stand, attitude and behaviour. Manliness is that wide concept which is capable of explaning all the activities of the Imam such as his combat, piety, sacrifice, forgiveness, anger, and all his life with all its varied and diverse incidences,
Apart from the lexicon and literal meaning of this term and its special gnostic and ethical significance, manliness in earlier times was an ethical system and a kind of code, a thing akin to Samurai, or the indulgence of knightliness, and the zealots among Jews or "AYYARANS" of the 5th century H.
That which is required in this discussion is to explain as an ethical value, as an attribute of perfection, a spiritual state and a gnostic term. The heading of this article, considering its comprehensiveness, is in fact a collection of the essential religious values, spiritual attributes and ethical qualities, and can well portray the various dimensions of Imam Husayn's (A) personality.
Imam Husayn (A) himself is a perfect example of manliness, and therefore he does not fit into the narrow definitions of manliness of sufis, malamatis, or the Christian definition for generosity.
Manliness is a word of popular use and includes the meaning of: tranquillity, dignity, piety, contentment, humility, bravery, sacrifice, patience, valor and honour. And all of these were present in the personality of Imam Husayn (A) to such an extent that they had become a part of his faculties.
From the heredity point of view Hadrat Zaynab (A) possessed the highest of stations of individual perfection and inherited personality, and from the angle of acquired traits of perfection, she was under the tutelage of the best parents: parents who were peerless both in words and deeds. Apart from this, that which she saw in practice and the events which influenced her were in no way insignificant, although remorsefully, history has not done justice and remains silent for most parts of the life of this great lady. That which mostly shines out in history is the role played by this brave lady in the Movement of Ashura and during captivity, and this relates to the last two years of her life, of which again, the last part is shrouded in clouds of ambiguity.
In the uprising and movement of Imam Husayn (A) the role of Zaynab (A) is very important, for, without it the uprising would have not yielded any results. The great wave of propagation of the enemy, the anti-value culture of the people, the long distances between the cities and the slow speed with which news used to travel, the political clout of the enemy, and the marginalisation of the Ahl al-Bayt, all these are unsuitable conditions in which Zaynab (A) has to propagate her message.
The blood of Imam (A) has an objective and carries a message, and this duty has been cast upon the shoulders of Zaynab (A). Hence, despite the above mentioned difficult conditions, the duty of propagating the message of the blood of Imam (A) and his companions, explaining the meaning of Prophet's (S) khilafat, and lifting the veil from the face of the
Umayyads, is hers.
Zaynab (A) is now supposed to stop the enemy from distorting the incidence of Karbala, and to utilize the bubbling blood of the martyrs to cut the roots of the Umayyad rule. Besides, Zaynab is also the leader of the caravan of captives and is supposed to protect the life of Imam Zayn al-Abidin (A) and look after the women and children in such a manner that a single act conveying weakness is not performed.
This heavy responsibility can only be shouldered by someone who possesses special qualities. Qualities like, profound faith, exceptional ability to give sacrifice, extraordinary patience and forbearance, knowledge and information along with eloquence, spiritual strength, self-control and sharp sightedness. All these qualities had come together in Zaynab (A).
Ordinary man, when he comes face to face with death, reacts mentally and psychologically in a particular manner. This general reaction involves, in stages, a feeling of shock and surprise, showing obsequiousness and agreeability towards someone who one imagines can possibly save him, a feeling of melancholy, and fifthly, surrender. But we do not find any of these stages in the companions of Imam Husayn (A) on the day of Ashura. Neither has a state of shock been reported concerning those who were left after this great event. Signs and psychic reactions like fear and tension during the evening of Ashura, or for that matter, a state of psychic, emotional, mental or behavioral agitation, have not been narrated regarding these persons. The question in this regard is, why did these psychic and behavioral disturbances not occur?
In the first place: It should be accepted that the behaviour of some individuals is not subject to the general laws and findings of psychology. In this regard, applying one of the dominant suppositions of psychology without profoundly studying its actual application and without giving proper attention to its reliability, is something senseless and not worth mentioning.
In the second place: It should be remembered that an emphasis on correlating the behaviour of Imam Husayn's (A) companions with one of the standards of modern psychology amounts to losing ones bearings and giving principality to modern science; and this is one of the curses of westoxication and modernism.
In the third place: The death of Imam (A) and his companions was not an ignorant and sudden death. It was a death freely chosen and opted for, and was therefore accompanied by a peace of mind. Contrarily, the present day man does not desire death, and that which is principal for him is to fly from it.
Finally, the methodology of Islamic thought in all its branches should be bound by Revelation, and accordingly, the discussion should be theological (kalami) and gnostic (irfani). In this stage, the possibility of a rational and logical discussion is further reduced because here the talk is about love and union by returning back to Him.
The doctrinal, political and social bases of the Movement of Ashura from the viewpoint of Husayn ibn Ali (A) can he divided into three major parts: deviation from wilayah (the rule of the Imams (A)), neglect of the most important political factor i.e. execution of Islamic laws, and the sorry state of the leaders of the Islamic society.
Husayn ibn Ali (A) delivered a sermon two years before the death of Mu'awiyah during the Hajj season to a congregation of more than a thousand Islamic personalities, and in his history and vibrant speech he alluded to the above mentioned fundamental principles and factors.
This sermon has a special significance because Imam (A) asked those present to give ear to his words and memorize them, and those who could write were asked to record the sermon and propagate it in their cities as the greatest message of the son of the Prophet (S).
In the first part of the sermon, Imam (A), after enumerating the remarkable qualities of Ali (A), goes on to discuss the issue of wilayah (rule of the Imams (A)) wherein the authority (of the wali) is greater than the power of a person over himself, and emphasizes that all the activities of the Islamic society must he performed as per the Divine Law.
The second issue and political foundation of the Movement of Karbala is the negligence of amr bil-ma'nuf (commanding good) and nahy anil-munkar (prohibiting evil) as a political factor for executing the laws of Islam. That which is noatable in the pronouncement of Imam (A) is the delineation of the broad dimensions and the wide connotations of the concept of amr bil-ma'ruf and nahy anil-munkar, and more importantly, the practical side of this politically critical issue i.e. confronting the tyrants, restoring the rights of the oppressed, annihilating oppression and wrong doing, and upholding justice in society.
The third factor in the Movement of Ashura and one which forms a major part of the sermon, and is from the social viewpoint an effective motive and basis for this movement, is the sorry state of the leaders of the people and the religious personalities, and their lack of sense of responsibility vis-a-vis the Islamic society.
The subject of the sermon reflects the intention and determination of Imam Husayn (A) for staging an uprising, and he himself explicitly mentions this at the end of the sermon. The Imam (A) states: O God, you know that our purpose is not to vie for power or to acquire the transcient things of the world. Instead we deaire to show (The people) the contours of Your religion, to introduce reform in the Islamic society....
The Revolution of 1978-79 that transformed Iran from a worst form of monarchy into an Islamic State had a two-fold significance, Internally, it heralded an unprecedented victory of people power based as it was on a rock solid ideological foundation of the spirit of Ashura. Externally, the new state along with its new ideological foundation and structure appeared to be a challenge to the existing world order based on a patron-client relationship between the West and the Third Word. Indeed, the emergence of the Islamic Iran, with all its ramifications, symbolized a strident protest by a Third World Muslim country to Western domination; and therein lies the major significance of the Revolution.
The paper argues that, an ideological construction based on the spirit of Ashura was instrumental in not only bringing about the downfall of the monarchy, but also in outlining the policy-stance vis-a-vis the global system dominated by the super powers. This argument is explicated in the discussion that divides into three sections. In the first section the ideological construction and its contextual relevance to the Iranian revolution are discussed. The second highlights how the spirit of Ashura was translated into reality through the martyrdom of innumerable Iranians in effectuating the Revolution. In the third section, the Revolution vis-a-vis the world order is discussed. The final section pulls together the observations by way of conclusion.
1. Significance of Ashura among the Sunni Muslims:
a) Religious point of view:
A study and understanding of the concept of Ashura in pre-Karbala Muslim Society will serve to recognize the developments aftermath.
b) Historic point of view:
A study on the nature of Ashura rites being influenced by and turns towards new dimensions after the tragedy of Karbala.
2. View of Sunni Scholars (Theologians, Historians, Politicians and Sociologists) on:
a) The incident in Karbala and events leading to it.
I propose to understand the view point of Sunni Scholars and the mass opinions on the series of developments that reached momentum at Karbala, beginning from the period after the killing of Uthman. This will serve as a background to justify their views.
b) Consequences and Dimensions of Ashura Movement.
The tragedy of Karbala lead to a great deal of changes and developments in the mode of thinking pertaining to political, religious & social aspects of Muslim Ummah. This chapter is devoted to understanding generally the impact of the consequences of Karbala upon the thinking of Sunni Muslims with particular emphasis on the scholars.
3. Impact of Ashura on the social life of Sunni Muslims and contribution of Sunni Scholars towards reviving the Ashura Culture.
Ashura had tremendous impact over the social life of Muslim masses of Sunni denomination. (It must be emphasized that Yazid and his clan should never be regarded as samples representing Muslims of Sunni denomination)
A number of rites and rituals were introduced to revive the commemoration of Ashura within the Muslim Community. And Scholars who prepared materials, literatures etc., for this occasion, giving a religious significance and value, have made great contribution. (e.g.Mappiulai Lebbei AIim who composed a "Mowlud" on Imam Husayn to be recited collectively during the month of Muharram).
Special rites celebrations and rituals also were performed on this occasion.
4. Ashura, Emerging as a powerful movement:
It is a fact that the Ashura Movement played a vital role in inspiring Muslims in their struggle to establish the truth. We purpose to understand here the extent of impact the Ashura Movement had in inspiring the Political and Social movement in the Sunni world.
5. Attempts to undermine the significance of Ashura movement thus creating obstacles in the path of Islamic resurgence.
The Relevance of Karbala Today
a) In the 6th Century the stability of Islam came under threat from inside the Muslim World.
Today Iran is facing the same threat in the form of war, and economic and political embargoes. Iran within the Muslim World sprang from the same source, of animosity against whatever un - Islamic.
b) Imam Husayn (A) was determined to carry out the 'Will of God" rebuild and renew a purely Islamic society and to avoid future conflicts within the Muslim World, combined with determination not to allow the tyranny of the caliphs to develop. Men of vision were there to lead. In the late seventies, the descendent of the same family, the late Imam Khomeini had to face the same hostility and Islam had to undergo the same enmity.
c) The challenge of Today, although different, the hostilities are simply the same. There was a strong defensive element in our past actions, it is still the same today. The adversaries had been Muslims in the past, influenced by non-Muslims. Today still the Muslims attack Islamic lands flanked by non-Muslims.
d) Muslim stregth is embodied in the unity of the Ummah and the element of sacrifices as portrayed by Imam Husayn (A). Their weaknesses lie in the disunity among the Muslims, and the greed of world power and wealth, to play the part of an agent for the evil forces against Islam.
The Islamic Revolution in Iran
a) The Islamic Revolution in Iran is the culmination of the "Ashura Movement" that started with the Martyrdom of Imam Husayn (A). One of the important factors which set the Islamic Revolution apart from all other revolutionary upheavals of the present century is its deep roots in the historical past.
b) The doctrine of Imamate, the figure of Imam who is merely the successor of the Prophet, in the legislative, administrative, even military capacity, but is also in same sense an extension of the spiritual dimension of the prophetic mission.
c) Every day is Ashura and every place is Karbala. The incidence of Ashura teaches all Muslims the lesson of not compromising with the infidel rulers of the time.
Ayatullah Khomeini: The Embodiment of a Tradition
Ayatullah Khomeini is the culmination of a tradition of Shi'ite Ulama in Iran, not merely in exercising an unusually comprehensive wide and profound influence in political and social affairs, but also with respect to the purely learned dimension of the tradition. Here too he is an unparalleled figure. In order to understand the Islamic Revolution in Iran and the role played in it by the ulama particularly Ayatollah Khomeini, it is necessary to regard not merely their political theory, not merely their sensibility and strategy and their identification with popular aspirations, but also the background of cultivation of Islamic learning and piety from which they sprang.