There have been few studies on the reflection of the epic of Ashura in the Persian poetry from the middle part of the fourth century H. to the ninth century H. According to the extant documents from the fourth century, the Shi'ah poets who composed their poems in Persian were the first to pay homage to the Master of Martyrs in their poetry. Kisa'i Marvazi is among the top poets in this field.
After Kisa'i in the fifth century, such poets as Nasir Khosrow have had a keen interest in Imam Husayn (A) and have written on such topics as the status of Imam Husayn (A) as Imam and his martyrdom.
In the sixth century, great poets turned their attention to the epic of Ashura. These poets were Amir Mo'ezzi, Sana'ie Ghaznavi, Qavami Razi, Anvari Abivardi and Khaqani Shirvani. Some of these poets such as Abivardi and Khaqani are the luminaries in the firmament of the Persian literature whose Qasidahs are unparalleled. Among these poets one sees two Shi'ah poets from Ray: Qavami and Abul-Mafakher Razi.
In the seventh century, usually the poets with gravitation towards mysticism such as Mowlavi, Sa'di and especially Attar referred to Ashura and the martyrdom of Imam Husayn (A).
In the eighth century such poets as Awhadi Maraghi, Salman Savoji and Khajou-ye Kermani have written on Ashura. The reference to Ashura in Persian poetry of the poets just mentioned comes in five forms:
1.Short reference: In Qasidahs as an allusion
2.As an appeal: In asking Prophet Muhammad (S),
Imams (A) and other great men of religion to intercede before God on behalf of the sinners.
3.Account of Sorrows: A somewhat emotional poetry on Karbala, but one which is less emotional than an elegy.
4.Short elegy: In parts of a long Qasideh or in a Mathnawi.
5.Long elegy: We know of only four long and independent elegies that were composed in this five-hundred-year-long period, i.e. from the fourth to the ninth century H. The first one belongs to Qavami Razi, a Shi'ah poet. The other three belong to Salman Savoji, Awhadi Maraghi and Sayf Farghani who were Sunni. Of course, there are some doubts as to whether Salman Savoji was a Sunni. At any rate, the Shi'ah poets, were the pioneers in the field of composing elegies for Imam Husayn (A).
The Movement of Ashura aimed at reviving religion and fighting against the sovereignty of the falsehood. After Ashura, the enemies and the oppressive rules tried to push this movement to the margins and destroy its memory. The teachings of Ahl-al-Bayt (A), however, were directed at keeping the memory of Ashura alive. These teachings, and the concomitant function of the Shi'ahs, in safeguarding and reviving the memory of the creator of that epic, made sure that the flame of Ashura would never die out, These functions took on such forms and expressions as praising and eulogising, mourning, group mournings, lamentations, Hosseiniyahs and Tekiyahs, writing accounts of the martyrdom, sermons and addresses, passion plays, recounting the sufferings of Husayn (A) (Rowzeh-Khani), pilgrimage, revering the soil of the land (Torbat) where Imam was martyred and honoring Euphrates.
In the above cases, the paper deals with the two dimensions of history and Hadith. Wherever possible, I have used the words of the man who revived the culture of Ashura in our era, the late Imam Khomeini (R.). I have also mentioned ways to preserve and continue the epic of Karbala in the form of religious rites and programs. I hope that we will be successful in safeguarding the epic of Ashura and its Karbalaesque culture.
The culture of Ashura is a living and effective issue capable of being studied in the present world. However, that which has been discussed in recent years in relation to Ashura is mainly of an ideological and political relevance and that which has been discussed is the struggle against oppression and negation of illegitimate rule. But Ashura can be relevant to today's secular world and this relation and relevance is a bridge between this episode and modern man. In the same way that Ashura is a reality, the secular character of the world today is also a fact.
Communications have become worldwide in today's world. On this basis the discussion of Ashura in the framework of a global culture can be an extrovertive exercise for the closed Shi'ite culture. Shi'ite culture cannot confine itself any more to its geographical limits and think within the framework of Iranian culture.
On the other hand three basic elements in the contemporary world culture consist of: knowledge, individuality, and freedom. These three elements which have become ideals have manifested themselves in history in the shape of three great legendary figures: Socrates, Christ, and Husain. We encounter three forms of tragedies in these three men which represent a sublime tragedy and a great death. A comparison between these three myths can disclose many concepts latent in human life.
The eternal tragedy of Socrates arises from man's knowledge of his own ignorance. The eternal tragedy of Christ is the love of God. But the tragedy of Imam Husain is defense of human freedom. This characteristic gives an aggressive role to the Shi'ah and gives the Shi'ah the mental capacity to perform the duty of bidding that which is good and forbidding evil.
To the Shi'ah, Imam Husain (A) is the embodiment of salvation:
The secret of this salvation lies in the tragedy borne by the Imam and his companions. That which is yielded by this tragedy borne with the goal of freedom can be called salvation. If we can consider any role for religious men and leaders in the secular world of today, it is this role of salvation, which cannot be attained by obtaining political power, or administering society or by compelling people to observe the precepts of religion.
With the emergence of Islam, the ideological and social system of the Arabs of Jahiliyyah era, which was based on polytheism, idol worship and ethnic or tribal chauvinism, crumbled and was replaced by a new system based on the Revelation and man's reason. Quraysh, which had settled in Mecca 200 years prior to the emergence of Islam, was in effect the heir to a period of Jahiliyyah which had lasted for some millennia.
What really mattered for the Jahiliyyah Arabs were the kinship within the tribe and dogmatic adherence to the belief of the forefathers.
With the overt invitation to Islam in the third year of appointment of Prophet Muhammad(S) to prophethood, the aristocrats of Quraysh intensified their efforts to ensure that this religion would not grow in popularity. They chose many methods to dissuade Prophet Muhammad (S) and his companions to give up their cause. Among their methods were: torturing the new converts to Islam, accusing the Prophet of Islam (S) of being a poet and a magician, making promises and threats, economic boycott and social ostracism. The aristocrats of Quraysh did everything within their power to stop this religion because it rejected the conventional wisdom of the people back then.
The messenger of this religion was telling, on the authority of One God that, "There is no god, but the One God, who is Unique. All men are equal before the One God: Kinship and lineage do not provide grounds for nobility and superiority. There is no distinction between Arabs and non-Arabs, between black and white, except through piety."
The declaration of unity, the equality of all men, the negation of the kinship and lineage, the prohibition of usury, and breaking down of the idols, these all meant that Islam was seeking a great revolution in intellectual, cultural and social domains. Negating the validity of kinship, lineage and the idols in a tribal society, in which polytheism serves as one of its pillars, indeed meant the death of that system and by extension the death of all the people who were the supporters of that system.
At the dawn of Islam, the tribe of Bani Umayyads, one of the two famous lines of Abd-e Manaf and the arch rival of Bani Hashim, was the epitome of all the JahiIiyyah traits.
We said that the rivalry over kinship and lineage was among the traits of pre-Islamic Arabs. Bani Umayyads were even much more passionate than all others with regard to lineage and kinship. The roots of this rivalry, which later led to open hostility, can be traced back to the conflict between Hashim and Umayyads which ended in the latter's ten-year-long exile to Syria. The intransigent opposition of Abu Sofyan Ibn-e Harb Ibn-e Umayyads to the prophethood of Prophet Muhammad (s) and then the opposition of sly Mu'awiyah to Ali (A) and Imam Hasan (A) were in line with the opposition of the House of Umayyads to the House of Hashim. Later this opposition prompted Mu'awivah's son to condider Islam and its teachings as a plaything.
Indeed the House of Umayyads, under the leadership of Ahu Sufyan and his followers, who were actually representatives of the Jahiliyyah system, were adamantly opposed to the clear and auspicious teachings of Islam because:
1.Whatever change that occurred in the social and cultural structure of Hijaz, especially in Mecca, would make it impossible for Abu Sufyan and other aristocrats in Quraysh to reign supreme in socio-economic circles.
2.They believed that by allowing Prophet Muhammad to succeed in his mission, they would allow the House of Hashim to claim a prophet among their ranks, where as the House of Umayyads had none. Hence, the House of Umayyads did their best to stop the growth of Islam. After 20 years of open hosility, they finally converted to Islam. This was of course a strategic retreat since they were waiting for an opportunity to re-establish their former Jahiliyyah sovereignty.
The first three Caliphs ruled for a total of 25 years. The third Caliph, Uthman lbn-e Affan, was himself from the Umayyads tribe. He provided the opportunity for Umayyads to push Islamic teachings aside and replace them with the teachings of the Jahiliyyah era.
It can be said with certainty that it was only Ali (A) and a small group of his true Shi'ahs that were loyal to the principles of Islam and confronted the representatives of Jahiliyyah.
As the Holy Qur'an had said the majority of the people would revert to their Jahiliyyah ways and would only pay lip service to Islam.
It appeared that only Ali (A) and some others were tormented by this reaction. Hijaz pulled itself to a corner and did not play a major role in politics. Iraq and Syria were considered as the two contenders. Finally, ali (A) was left alone among his political Shi'ahs (not his ideological Shi'ahs).
When the time for Husayn's leadership emerges, he realizes he has to finish the unfinished project of his father and brother.
Now, polytheism (Shirk) is hiding under the banner of Tawhid (monotheism) and the pre-Islamic system has appeared once again under the new guise of Islamic Caliphate and the successors of the prophet. Who is there now, from the prophet's progeny, except Husayn, who can call out in this new Jahiliyyah that:
'Say there is no God, but Allah and gain your salvation!"
The Jahiliyyah Party (the House of Umayyads) is now sitting on the throne. But it aims to push Islam out of the scene, or to turn it hollow from the inside. It was no wonder that Yazid wanted Husayn (A) to enter into a covenant with him, without setting any conditions.
If Husayn (A) had signed a covenant with Yazid, the House of Umayyads would achieve their Jahiliyyah dream: subjugating Bani Hashim. Then they could freely replace Islamic teachings with those of the Jahiliyyah.
Imam Husayn (A), cognizant of his great duty as Imam, refused to do so. He rose in order to revive Islam and correct the innovations (Bid'ah). He and 72 of his companions sacrificed their lives for the sake of Islam.
Even though the socio-political conditions of that time (such as: the scarcity of true believers, revival of pre-Islamic values, lack of political participation by people in Hijaz, rivalry and ethnic and tribal factionalism among Iraqis and the Syrians, and the betrayal and docility of the people of Iraq) did not allow Imam Husayn to achieve material victory, but he achived true victory by leaving behind a legacy of "supporting the religion", "freedom of spirit" and "commitment to Islamic principles and values" for the generations to come. One such fruit is the Ashuraesque uprising of Imam Khomeini (R).
The uprising of Sayyid al-Shuhada(A) and his esteemed companions was not simply an armed revolt: rather it had varied aspects and many positive characteristics, each of which requires to be dealt with great acumen.
Among the less discussed issues pertaining to the events of Ashura and its commemorators is the constructive role of Ashura in the spheres of ethical training and psychic development. This peculiarity is reflected throughout by the character of Imam Husain (A) and his noble companions, as well as by the reminiscences left behind by other martyrs (including the martyrs of the Imposed War).
In this discussion an effort is made to arrive at a comprehensive conclusion concerning the role of Ashura and the culture it has ushered in promoting psychic well-being, and the psychic consequences of distancing from this culture.
The headings of the positive psychic influences are:
1.Appropriate striving
2.Peace of mind
3.Becoming immune to depression and anxiety
4.Increase in self-esteem
5.Becoming active in building the future
6.Ease in confronting irritating situations
7.Acquiring a unified personality
8.Avoiding psychic hideouts
9.Acquiring qualities responsible for psychic development
The headings of the psychic problems arising as a result of distancing oneself from the culture of Ashura are:
1. Getting stuck in a materialistic mould of life.
2. Weakness in confronting difficulties
3.Busying oneself in unimporatnt activities
4.Becoming a toy in the hands of others
5.Living life without love.
Say: I do admonish you on one point that ye stand up before Allah, (it may be) in pairs, or (it may be) singly, and then ponder.... –Holy Qur'an. Chapter Saba, Verse 46
In this paper, I have tried to respond to those pseudo-intellectuals and the seemingly-pious whose pronouncements on this divine movement, this sacred movement of Imam Husayn (A), necessitate prompt rebuttal which should he formulated from the standpoint of Shi'ah jurisprudents, especially the late Imam Khomeini (R.). I will provide the answers on the basis of belief in the infallibility of the Ahl-al-Bayt (A) and in their words and conducts as the source for reasoning. I will provide the answers in two sections:
A: Declaration of conformity to the precepts of religion, the rejection of signing a covenant with Yazid and the opposition to his regime, the last will and testament of Imam Husayn (A) and the appointment of Muhammad Hanafiyyah as the deputy, journey to Mecca, taking the women and children along, changing the Hajj to a minor Hajj, lack of secrecy (Taqiyyah) and rejection of compromise, camping in Karbala, buying lands in Ninavah enjoining the good and prohibiting the evil, asking for respite from the enemies, giving permission to friends (some opted for leaving), giving sermons and delivering addresses in the battlefield, holding prayer of khawf (fear) at noon on Ashura fighting an armed fight until martyrdom in the path of God.
B: Includes discussions on the permission to bury the martyrs washing their bodies or wrapping them in the shrouds, the speeches given by the women in Kufa and Damascus, visiting the graves of the martyrs, lamentations over the sufferings of Imam Husayn (A), cursing the murderers, prostrating on the Torbat of Master of the Martyrs eating the Torbat as a remedy, putting Imam Husayn's Torbat next to the shroud (of the corpse to be buried).
The summary of the article is as follows:
1.There exists a great diversity of views between scholars concerning the uprising of Imam Husain (A). There are altogether seven different opinions about it, and this is a cause of surprise for any researcher.
2.In the original historical sources, which include the sermons and letters of Imam Husain relating to this uprising, there exists no disparity, and this divergence of opinions is due to some traditions which have been the cause of difficulties in this regard, and had these traditions not existed, there would have been no difference of opinions concerning this issue.
3.The opinions about Imam Husain's (A) uprising arc as follows:
i) The first view is that Imam (A), in the second stage of his uprising, planned for the sake of reviving Islam and overthrowing the tyrannical regime, to establish an Islamic government with the help of the people of Kufa. Imam Khomeini also holds this views (Sahifa-e-Nur, vol. 1, p. 174).
ii) The second view is that Imam Husain (A) acted with the intention of being martyred, and that there was a Divine secret command that the Imam (A) must present himself for martyrdom.
iii) The third opinion is that the Imam (A) intended to form an Islamic government at the time of leaving Mecca, but after receiving the news of Muslim ibn Aqil's martyrdom, he decided to sacrifice himself and his companions.
iv) The fourth view is that Imam (A) invited the people to rise in arms against the rule of Yazid and to topple his government; but he himself did not want to form a government and to take the reigns of Khilafat in his hand because even in the event of his capturing power he would not be able to revive Islam or even prohibit the practice of cursing his father Ali (A).
v) The fifth view is that basically Imam Husain (A) did not rise in revolt and had no intention of jihad, and his journey from Madinah to Mecca and from Mecca towards Iraq was solely with an intention of saving his life.
vi) The sixth opinion is that Imam (A) moved towards Kufa for establishing a government, but he knew that he would be martyred during this journey and would not be able to form a government.
vii) The seventh view is that Imam (A), Pretended that he wanted to form a government in Kufa, while in fact he embarked with the intention of being martyred.
4.The first two views which have a long history are considered the two primary views of this issue, while the other opinions were born later on and are classified as secondary.
5.The first view which says that, Imam (A) intended to form a government for the sake of reviving Islam, is substantiated by the sermons and letters of Imam Husayn (A) himself. This is the strongest testimony and is in concurrence with the original sources of this event. This view is the only correct and acceptable opinion and happens to be the opinion of Imam Khomeini as well.
6.The basis of the second view which says: Imam (A) undertook the journey with the intention of being martyred, are certain traditions, which in our opinion are the fabrications of ghali (extremist) liars and hence rejectionable.
7.For the other five views no worthwhile proof has been provided and the holders of the opinions have, at times, relied upon conjecture and imagination.
8.The movement of Imam Husain (A), in all the four stages, was undertaken in accordance with the standards of Islamic law (fiqh) and the practice of rational people, and it took shape on the basis of proper planning, advice, and the selection of the best option. Imam Husain (A) who was the greatest faqih and Islamic scholar of his time, planned and executed his movement in accordance with the standards of fiqh, and in doing so he did not require a secret Divine command.
9.The spirit of Imam's movement and its real axis was to unitiate the performance of good acts to reject evil deeds in practice, by, at times, stopping others from doing evil, at other times, for the sake of destroying evil already present; at times for stopping the performance of an evil deed which they wanted to force upon a person, and at still other times, for deprecating and denouncing evil. All these four forms of rejecting evil have been practiced by Imam Husain (A).
10.The movement of Imam Husain (A) in all its stages is an example and a guide for the freedom fighters and reformers of all times till the Day of Judgment.
11.From the time when Imam Khomeini proclaimed in 1350 (H.S.) in Najaf that: Imam Husain (A) sent Muslim ibn Aqil so that he may invite the people for taking the oath of allegiance (bay'at) so that he may form an Islamic government and destroy the corrupt regime (Sahifa-e Nur, vol. 1, p. 174), this true speech of Imam Khomeini carved a niche for itself in the hearts of the faithful revolutionary people. Day by day their numbers grew and they became more and more powerful till when, in 1357 (H.S.), by taking inspiration from the uprising of Imam Husain and with the power of the people under the leadership of the Late Imam Khomeini and the Husain of his time, they caused the Islamic Revolution of Iran, which is the actual interpretation of the Husayni uprising, and toppled the Shah and replaced the dictatorial monarchy with the sacred system of the Islamic republic. In doing so they presented a new face of Islam to the world and rescued the Qur'an from being abandoned and forsaken.
Undoubtedly in the history of Shi'ah culture, uprising of Imam Husayn (A) is considered among the most important events. Therefore, it is imperative that one would review and analyze some of the special features of the method of historiography of Ashura as well as its historical development in the Shi'ah culture.
The traditional historiography of Ashura (be it among the Sunnis or the Shi'ahs) has always been based on writing accounts of events, which was done in non-analytical and non-critical manner mixed with a degree of emotionality. This type of historiography usually degenerates into exercises in writing mythology and reporting of exaggerations. But the most important feature of this type of historiography, is the intervention of supernatural forces and occurrence of the miraculous and the extraordinary.
Essentially, with regard to historiography of religious events in general and historiography of the events of Ashura in particular, the world of Shi'ism, much later than the world of Sunnism, began to undergo a change. The book, Shahid-e Javid (Immortal Martyr) by Ne'matollah Salehi Najafabadi heralds the beginning of this new era in contemporary Shi'ah thought.
This new period has only a few books to its credit. These writings vary in terms of quality. They have special features such as revival of the revolutionary-Political approach to the events of Karbala which provide us with an analytical or critical evaluation of the events. More importantly, these works stress the "natural' and "humane" aspects of the events in the history of religion.
In the historiography of Ashura, the circles of the sources and research documentation are expanded to include non-Shi'ah sources such as the Sunni sources.
The common feature of the old historiography and the new one is in that they are both within the category of "theological historiography". In other words, this body of writing is written based on unchangeable premises. It is written under the influence of religious beliefs of the historiographers and utimately serve their theological aims.
In the end, one must heed the fact that the method of scientific historiography is based on two methodological premises. First, the historical events should be analyzed with regard to their "natural" and "humane" aspects. Second, the preconditions for a scientific endeavor are "objectivity" and "disinterestedness".
Even though the science of history is independent from the science of theology, but it is among its most rudimentary and basic pillars. In effect, the expansion and development of Shi'ah theology is to a great extent dependent on the development of Shi'ah theology is to a great extent dependent on the growth and evolution of scientific historiography of the religious events.
The Noble Prophet (S) observed: "By the martyrdom of Husain (A) there is a heat in the hearts of the faithful which will never cool off". This holy revolution has throughout history embarked upon the task of educating and nurturing peoples. The incident of Karbala became a turning point in the history of Islam and led to numerous bloody uprisings and movements which were all inspired by the movement of Imam Husain (A).
Ashura is an amazing event concerning which some, emphasize the martyrdom of Imam Husain's (A) companions in the battlefield from a point of view, while others empasize their fortitude and patience.
The belief and the lofty faith of Imam Husain's (A) companions who remained calm and totally composed in the most sanguine situations is another facet to which attention has been paid.
But why should we refer to the practice of the Ahl al-Bayt and search for the culture of Ashura in their biographical accounts? This is because of the connection between the Thaqalayn (the Qur'an and the Ahl al-Bayt) on the one hand, and on the other, due to the fact that a single flow of events dominates the lives of all the Ahl al-Bayt (A). Examples of the incidence of Karbala have occurred in the lives of all the Imams (A) in varying forms and in consonance with their times and the situations they were placed in.
The Ahl al-Bayt (A) gave extraordinary importance to historically safeguarding and protecting the Ashura and keeping alive its memories through commemorating it by continually organizing gatherings for reciting elegies and narrating the injustice perpetrated on the Ahl al-Bayt (A).
The painful and sanguine incidence of Ashura had certain consequences. Among them was the disgrace the enemy had to face and the permanent historical victory of Imam Husain's (A) ideology. When Imam Sajjad (A) returned to Madinah, one of his friends asked him: Who achieved victory? The Imam (A) replied:
When it is time for prayer, recite the adhan and iqarnah, and then you will recognize who achieved victory.
The present researches analyze the role of Iranians in Ashura and the continuation of the revolutionary process of this nation before and after the event of Ashura, the very nation that had been oppressed for ages by the kings. In the ensuing decades since the emergence of Islam, unfortunately some of the people within the ruling group, due to their parochial mentality, began to discriminiate against Iranians to the point that they considered them as among the lowest stratum of the society. But the viewpoint held by the Ahl-al-Bayt (A) and especially Hadrat Ali (A) was different in that they respected Iranians. It is no wonder that the Iranians have a passionate love and a strong inclination towards the family of the Prophet (S). An invitation was extended to Imam Husayn (A) by Iranians so he would come to Iran. The Iranians provided support to Imam Husayn (A) and after his martyrdom were actively seeking revenge for his blood. This all shows the sincere love of this nation for the Prophet's Household. The blood spilt in Karbala inspired the Iranians to seek vengeance against the Umayyad rulers. Actually, the intense desire to revenge helped them gain the self-confildence to stage full-scale revolts against the Umayyads. Indeed, the Iranians were the onces that put an end to the Umayyad rule. They were the ones who later contributed to the Islamic civilization and made sure that the Islamic lands were among the most advanced nations for hundreds of years.
All of these events occurred thanks to the sacrifice of Imam Husayn (A) in Karbala, an event which added to the love of this nation for the Prophet's Household, a love which has not diminished and is always on the increase.
In the social thoughts of Imam Khomeini (R.), the main problem facing the Muslim Ummah is the fact that they have become the victim of the whims of the Nafs (Self), a problem which has in turn led to the lack of existence of any righteous government and the domination of governments based on falsehood.
Imam Khomeini (R.) repeatedly referred to the movement of Ashura. Indeed he derived his model of social and-political conduct from the events in Ashura. He repeatedly compared the events in the year 60 H. with the events in the forties and fifties in the Iranian calendar of this century [equivalent to sixties and seventies on Christian calendar].
All social phenomena come about as a result of a certain factor or factors. The movement of Ashura is no exception. Ashura did not begin in the year 60 H. But it began after the departure of the Prophet Muhammad (S). One could say that Ashura is a chain that connected Saqifah to Karbala.
Among these factors were the infiltration of the old and sworn enemies in the leadership in order to show the seeds of discord among Muslims and to occupy key positions. This led to the emergence of Mu'awiyah as the ruler of Syria during the reign of the Second Caliph whose silence and complacency about the former's conduct paved the way for the military buildup and the rise of an economic as well as political power in Syria. During the rule of the Third Caliph, the center of government was, in effect, transferred to Damascus.
After the peace with Imam Hasan (A), the power structure had no qualms about being overtly anti-religious. Hence, in this period, the House of Hashim (Bani Hashim) came under increasing pressure.
In this paper, after presenting a documented discussion, I will focus on the last days of the life of Mu'awiyah and on his attempts for creating a government based on lineage. I will then deal with the event of Ashura and the causes that led to that event. In the section on the causes that led to the event of Ashura, I will discuss three causes: the opposition to the covenant (Bay'ah) with Yazid Ibn Mu'awivah, the invitation by the people of Kufa and the factor of enjoining the good and prohibiting the evil. In another part of the paper, I will discuss and compare the effects of each of these three factors. Aside from the importance of the invitation of the people in Kufa and Imam's refusal to sign a covenant with Yazid, the most important factor is Imam's insistence on exercising his duty to enjoin what is good and prohibit what is evil. This is seen frequently in addresses given by Imam Husayn (A), in the letters that he wrote for the tribal chieftains in Basra and in his last will and testament.
Doubtlessly. Khomeini is a Husayni, and Ashura too has many widespread and profound political dimensions. When we want to analyze Ashura from the viewpoint of Imam Khomeini (R) we face a difficulty, which is: the ruler (in his case) is both a faqih and a Gnostic ('arif), a politician and a pious individual, a poet and a philosopher, and therefore his words at times have a legal sense and at others a gnostic meaning, at times they are theological, while at others political. It is here that the researcher conducting an autopsy of Imam Khomeini's thoughts is perplexed.
In the field of politics, from the point of view of epistemology, there are various areas of inquiry, and it is not valid to carry an issue of one area to another. Therefore in dealing with the observations of Imam Khomeini (R), at times contradictions arise. For solving this problem attention should be paid to the definitions of the various areas of political inquiry. These areas are: political science, knowledge of political events, political analysis, political views and opinions, and finally, political thoughts.
Every part of his speech belongs to one of these areas. Apart from the first area i.e. political science, in which no specific scientific theory about Ashura has been reported from him, in all the other areas he has aired his specific views.
Imam Khomeini (R) is a political thinker who had a program for administering the affairs of the people. He was a powerful revivalist whose political thoughts took the form of a revolution and were codified as the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The political thought of Imam Khomeini is purely Shiite; he explicates Islam on this basis and from this point of view he mastered the courage to revive religious thought. With a knowledge of this, a great part of the masses in the Islamic world - both Shi'ah and Sunni - accept him as their leader
After the death of the Second Caliph, Uthman lbn Affan was nominated as the successor by Abdur-Rahman Ibn Awf, who was a member of the committee to choose the caliph. The House of Umayyads, the very people who were pardoned by Prophet Muhammad (S), took the most advantage of the goodwill of the Third Caliph. During the ensuing years, the House of Umayyads succeeded in pushing the House of Hashim and the Ahl-al-Bayt away from the center of political life of the Islamic society. Right from the very beginning of his rule, Mu'awiyah concentrated all his might in shaping a monarchical rule. He ordered the killing of many of the sincere and loyal friends of Hadrat Ali (A) such as Hujr lbn Adi. Finally he appointed Yazid as his crown prince. Alter the death of Mu'awiyah in the month of Rajab of the year 60, Yazid became the ruler of the Muslim world, the very Yazid who was a corrupt libertine and who had composed the following verse:
"The house of Hushim (merely) played with the rule, (otherwise) there was neither any news, nor was there ever a revelation."
Since the beginning of the rule of Yazid, the leadership as appointed by Prophet Muhammad (S) could not tolerate the ways of Yazid and was led to take measures which eventually led to the events of Ashura in the month of Muharram of the year 61
H. Alter the martyrdom of the grandson of Prophet Muhammad (S), important events came to pass both in Hijaz and Iraq which were all inspired by the events of Ashura. The uprising of the people of Medinah, known as "Harrah", in the month of Dhul-Hijjah of the year 63 H. under the leadership of Abdullah Ibn Hanzalah, the declaration of autonomy in Mecca by Abdullah Ibn al-Zubayr were the reactions of the events of Karbala, in the land of Hijaz. The Uprising of the Repentant under the leadership of Sulayman Ibn Surad Khuza'i in 65 H. and the uprising of Mukhtar Ibn Abi'Ubayd Thaqafi in Kufa, were all inspired by the revolt in Karbala. The 16-month-long rule of Mukhtar had the following achievements: the killing of the perpetrators of the carnage in Karbala and the direct participation of Iranian Mawalis in his uprising. In the ensuing 20-year-long rule of Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf Thaqafi over Iraq, the Shi'ahs were persecuted and suffered many indignities at his hand. The Arab chauvinism of the Umayyads, plus the repressive rule of Hajjaj, made the Mawalis harbor the deepest kind of hatred against the Umayyad rulers. Hence, because they had a common enemy, the Mawalis and the Shi'ahs began to gravitate towards each other. Previous to that, during the rule of Hadrat Ali (A), who had dispatched officials to rule over such lands as Khorasan and lsfahan, the seeds of Shi'ism and the support for Ahl-al-Bayt (A) were sown back then. Later with the arrival of people like Ash'ari to Qum the sapling of Shi'ism began to blossom.
The issue of government in the monotheistic world view, is among the special attributes of the creator of the world, both in terms of creation (Takwin) and divine legislation (Tashri). As far as man's social life is concerned, the issue of government is entrusted to the messengers, Imams and the righteous men on earth.
The establishment of justice, which is a precondition for human growth and evolution, is not possible except through, a divine Khilafah (Vicegerency). What really ensures the establishment of this divine government is the great responsibility of enjoining the good and prohibiting the evil (amr-e bil-ma'ruf wa nahy an al-munkar) which guarantees the execution of the divine laws and retributions.
In the Hadith sources of major denominations in Islam, one comes across many reports which stress the struggle against the oppression and corruption of rulers, even if the rulers happen to be Muslims. Considering these Hadeiths, one can conclude that the thesis that one should obey the oppressive rulers-a thesis which is based on some questionable Hadiths or statements by some of the disciples of Prophet Muhammad (S) is an insupportable thesis. It is indeed a thesis which the oppressive rulers must have created to bestow an aura of legitmacy to their illegal rule. At the time when Yazid became the ruler, the system of government was being transformed from Khilafah of Prophet Muhammad into dynastic rule. This amounted to a ruinous innovation (Bid'ah), which necessitated a confrontation even if it meant a bloody confrontation.
Effecting a major destructive change in the religion of Islam by the House of Umayyads could not possibly be done without first preparing the intellectual foundation for that deleterious change. The Umayyads supported the idea of determinism, attributing the cause of the events to a predetermined divine plan. The innovations in the system of government and the ideological foundation created a situation which made Imam Husayn (A), the grandson of Prophet Muhammad (S), play his historic role and fulfil his divine mission. He had two effective weapons in achieving his aim:
1.The enlightenment of the public opinion and exposing the evil Umayyad rule,
2.Fight and struggle till martyrdom.
Martyrdom was the most effective way Imam Husayn (A) could have chosen to revive Islam and to bring about subsequent revolutions such as the Islamic Revolution of Iran, and that is what he did.
Need, thirst and self-control are the three words that summarize the culture of Ashura. These three concepts manifest themselves on the road to God. The culture of Ashura, in the fight between truth and falsehood and the battle between good and evil, serves as the model of all seekers of truth. On this road, the intellectual model and the political behavior of Imam Khomeini (R.) are informed by the Ashura of Husayn(A), with two major differences in the presence of the people and the elites. In the Ashura of Husayn (A) the people have a weak presence and the elite are active on the scene: The elite are from the pure line of the Prophet (S) and a handful of people are themselves from another group of elite. Despite that, in Ashura a very peculiar type of victory emerges, the victory of blood over the sword, thereby leading to the rise of an eternal model for all arenas where truth confronts falsehood.
The movement of Imam Khomeini derives its model from the movement of Imam Husayn (A). The difference here is that the people of Kufa betrayed Imam Husayn (A) but the Iranians were ready to die facing the American and Israeli bullets. Therefore the people have an impressive presence. The elite, too, were present in the movement of Imam Khomeini (R.) but they were lost in the vast popular and religious organizations. The organizations that did not have any demarcation. Anyone who was religious and was a follower of Imam Khomeini (R.) was automatically a member of these organizations because the people would repeatedly chant "Party is only the party of Allah! The leader only Ruhullah!" The lack of elitism in the process of revolution had a positive effect, but later it began to show as one of the inadequacies. The parties, groups associations and forums did not show much of an enthusiasm for being actively present on the scene, for continuing the dialogue and for adding to the multiplicity of dialogues and actions. The people too did not show any keen interest in having a spectrum of ideas and dialogues. Hence, the legitimate and popular Islamic government did not show any inclination or attraction towards diversity. Despite that, in all the post-revolution phases, the presence of the people has always served as the main guarantor of power and legitimacy of the government.
At any rate, the victorious model of Ashura, with its powerful message of the victory of blood over the sword, has been present in religious revolutions and struggles and will remain as the behavioral model of the Muslim world especially the Islamic Revolution of Iran.
Imam Khomeini (R.) was the paragon of virtue and courage. His life was the manifestation of the values of the culture of Imam Husayn's Ashura.
The history of contemporary Iran testifies that for forty years, the dictatorial regime of Pahlavi, suppressed all calls for reform. Alter the events in Shahrivar 1320 H., Imams politiacal struggle took on a new form with the publication of his work Kashf al-Asrar (Unveiling the Secrets). From there on, in every step of the way, until his sad departure, Imam Khomeini (R.) served as a living manifestation of the uprising of Ashura in thought and action.
The warriors of Islam, including the Baseejis (i.e. members of the Baseej, the Volunteer Force), the freed prisoners of war, and the martyrs-all of them are students of the school of Ashura. From yet an other point of view, they are also teachers of the lessons of Karbala, for, Ashura is a practical model of struggle and a lesson for life.
The students of Ashura should be considered in two parts. First, from the viewpoint of their intellectual and spiritual development, and second, from the aspect of the revival and reconstruction of the historic episode of Ashura by them and the re-living of Ashura by these fervent devotees of the school of Ashura. As to the first part, the development of these brave persons begins with primary self-knowledge, with such questions as 'Who am I? With contemplation and solitude, it reaches the stage of insight. Self-knowledge means the recognition of one's capacities, weak points, duties and ultimate goal. In the third stage he attains awareness and consciousness by becoming united in his being with his goals and duties and that which he has discovered of his own being. In the fourth stage he reaches the stage of choice of the way of life. Thereafter he experiences love so as to attain to the stage of 'obedience' as the dedication of all his capacities and energies to his ultimate choice and goal. Thereafter he attains to his last stage, that of 'wilayah' 'qurh' and 'liqa', becoming immersed in pure and unmixed life. With recourse to documented events and episode, an effort is made in this part to explain the role of the Movement of Ashura in this regard.
The second part comprises of the special characteristics of the eight-year sacred defense from the viewpoint of similarity with the Movement of Ashura which serves as a model. Contrary to the notions of some people who, out of ignorance or evil motives, cover the real face of Ashura with legend and superstition, believing it to be something singular and unrepeatable. Ashura is a lesson that can be learnt at all times and places. The criterion for struggle and movement should be the motive to fulfil one's duty, and this is a truth common to Ashura and the sacred eight-year defense.
"The youthful paragons of Ashura" are a group of martyrs of Karbala who were able to recognize the true path, despite their young age. They offered their lives in order to guard the true path. The introduction of these martyrs to the members of present and tomorrow's generations is meant to show them that they, too, can support their religion.
Some of the martyrs counted in this paper are: Hardrat Ali Ibn Al-Husayn (A), also known as Ali Akbar, Hadrat Abbas lbn-e Ali Ibn Abi Talib (A), Hadrat Qasim lbn Al-Hasan (A), Awn lbn Abi Talib (A), Ahmad lbn Al-Hasan lbn Amir aI-Mu'monin (A), Abdullah Ibn Moslem Ibn Aqil, etc.
A look at the life and martyrdom epic of these paragons would leach our today's generation to what extent they should go in order to safeguard the religion.
The story of the martyrdom of these youthful paragons shakes everyone. The description of the events of Ashura is the description of the nobility of spirits. It is an account of how the world became worthless in the eye of the martyrs and how their martyrdom served as the indictment of polytheism, aggression and oppression. In their death, too, they set the unprecedented example of how a group of people can sacrifice everything for freedom and salvation of all the downtrodden masses of the world.
The episode of Ashura has a historical background relating to the early era of Islam, the defeat of the non-believers of the Quraysh at Badr by the army of Islam, and to other events that took place following the demise of the Noble Prophet (S) and which ultimately led to the episode of Ashura.
The basis of the uprising of Imam Husayn was a religious one. His is a deal that he makes with God. The motives behind the uprising of Ashura is that Imam Husayn (A) does not encounter merely the 'Yazid of his own time, rather he wages a battle against all the tyrants of history, a battle in which he is always victorious and in which he shows the superiority of the victory of thought over military victories.
After the episode of Ashura this movement continued to survive amongst the people in different forms such as the mourning ceremonies during which elegies are recited and the ideals and values of the Househhold of the Messenger of Allah (s) are recalled and commemorated.
We observe in history that an era of Islamic revival begins with the martyrdom of Imam Husayn (A). Islamic spirituality regains its brilliance and Islam, after undergoing a period of distortion, itself acquires a new life with the grief over the tragedy of Imam Husayn(A). Popular uprisings begin to occur and it is in the course of these uprisings that Umayyad rule is ultimately brought to an end.
Our duty in regard to this episode is to define our own way, to distinguish between truth and falsehood, and to follow the path of the truth. Neutrality and indifference in regard to the battle between Husayn (A) and Yazid are meaningless. We should choose our path correctly as the followers and Shi'ah of Husayn ibn 'Ali (A).
Three characteristics have helped elevate Karbala to the summit of the events in the history of Islam. Those three characteristics were not present even in the wars in which Prophet Muhammad (S) participated. These three special features have made Karbala the most complete, the most passionate and the most lasting of all the revolutions in the history of Islam.
In Karbala, three elements of epic, message and mourning have been gathered and interwined in the most majestic form and the most beautiful combination. The analysis of each of these elements will help us in our further understanding of Ashura and will lead us to understand the full dimension of this great movement.
Karbala has special features that one can not find in any revolution in history. It is the shortest revolution in the world (half a day). It is the most limited revolution from a geographical viewpoint. It is also a revolution with the least number of revolutionaries. But it is a revolution that is becoming more and more effervescent and more articulated, serving as the source of inspiration for all the free spirits and all freedom-loving people. Here, the links between Ashura and the Islamic Revolution of Iran and specially the Eight-Year-Long Sacred Defense becomes clear. These links display themselves in the last will and testament of the combatants, in their headbands, in the mottoes and songs of the war front, in the operations' catchwords, in the mood of the nights before the operation, in the function of the families of the martyrs, in the signs in the war front, in the epitaphs of the martyrs, in the funeral ceremonies for the martyrs (the Seventh Days, the Fortieth Days, the Anniversaries) and in the songs of the Eight-Year-Long Sacred Defense...
On the night of the operation our commander cried: "Dear Friends! We abandoned Husayn once in Karbala and (the result was that) for fourteen centuries, we were humiliated, made to suffer insults and torture. Never again shall we abandon Husayn (A) this time."
The movement of Ashura was a great uprising which appeared to be fruitless at that time but which was full of consequences in later years. There is no doubt that it still retains its fecundity. Who were the people that participated in this movement and what did they want? Little attention has been paid to this matter. As we know it began 50 years after the demise of the Prophet (S) and the people of Iraq played an active role in it. What did the people of Iraq want? Were they all Muslims and were they of one mind with the leader of the movement? Were they pained by the heresies that had appeared in the faith and did they all want to revive the Sunnah and end bid'ah? If that were true, why did the movement have such a tragic end? This matter has been analyzed in the author's book "Fifty Years Later" where he has examined its causes from a historical and sociogical point of view. Following is a summary of his research:
The people of Iraq fell into various groups each of which had its own particular goal for participating in this movement.
1. Those who had witnessed the simplicity of Islamic life from the days of the Prophet (S) until the early years of Uthman's rule and were aware of Islamic justice. They would compare that era with the conditions of their own times and remember the by gone days with regret.
2. Those who were loyal to the precepts of Islam and who observed how the Shari'sh was being violated by the rulers and the laws of Islam and the Sunnah of the Prophet (S) had become a plaything in the hands of the rulers. They longed for the appearance of a leader who would revive the Sunnah and eradicate the bid'ahs.
3.Those who had come out of the deserts of Najd and Tahamah for the sake of war booty obtained through participation in Islamic victories. They lived in the military garrisons, and suffered the losses of war, while others enjoyed the benefits of the public treasury. They awaited the opportunity to rise and seize their own rights.
4.Those from Iran who enjoyed wealth and position before the coming of the Muslim armies. They were compelled to turn to Iraq, mostly Kufa and to some extent Basra. They had lost their earlier privileges and were looked down upon by the Arabs. Apparently peaceful, they were active covertly.
5.Those who had heard the tales of the conflicts of Lakhm and Ghassan and who had heard from their fathers how their ancestors had fought the people of northern Arabia. Now they noticed Syria become the center of the Caliphate and the Syrians view Iraqis with contempt.
6.Those who had been deceived by Mu'awiyah's false promises and had abandoned Ali and his son. Mu'awiyah had driven them away after consolidating his power.
7.The opportunists who looked forward to profiting from disturbed conditions and who tried to bring about such conditions so that they may profit from them.
The majority of the people of the Iraq of those days consisted of these kinds of groups. They were unanimous on a single point, to overthrow the Damascene regime and to make Iraq the center of the Islamic Caliphate. It is however doubtful whether all of them wanted religious rule by the descendants of the Prophet (S) in power.
In a society where religion has a dominant role, people can be moved by religion more than anything else. Hence any movement had to begin in the name of religion, and who could be in a better position to lead it than the son of the Prophet's daughter, whom all these groups accepted and who had never given allegiance to the Syrian ruler?
We all know the sad end of the movement but it did not end with the martyrdom of Husayn. Yazid imagned that he had suppressed the uprising, but it was an illusion, and nothing more was to be expected of an inexperienced ruler like him.
The movement was apparently suppressed, but its fires never died out. At one time it was led by Sulayman ibn Surad, an ardent man of faith, and at another time by Mukhtar who consolidated his role for some years with the slogan of avenging Husayn's blood. Thereafter it became became a handy means for those who suffered under Umayyad oppression, and as we know no Arab tribe was happy with their rule. With the help of the people of Khorasan, all these groups, who had tried at different times to stage an uprising, finally overthrow Umayyad rule, but instead of an "al-Rida from the Household of Muhammad" an "al-Rida from the House of Abbas" took over the Caliphate and ruled for more than five hundred years.
During all these disturbances and uprisings, the group which profited the least was that of the genuine friends of the Messenger of God (S) and the House of Ali, whose hearts desired what they said with their tongues. Those who underwent the greatest amount of persecution during the rule of the 'Abbasids were the descendants of the Prophet, who were either killed, or wasted in dungeons, or lived an anonymous existence in villages and cottages. The fate of some of them is visible from such books as the Maqaatil al-Talibiyyeen and other works. It was in the wake of these defeats that the genuine Shi'is and the friends of the Prophet's Household poured their sufferings into the mould of poetry and gave expression to their pains as the victims of injustice.
The recitation of elegies began in homes, then it extended to the mosques and the mourning ceremonies. I have cited examples of these elegies and verses in my book on the life of Fatimah (A). In the year 352 H. Shi'i women held a mourning procession in the Bazaars of Baghdad and that opened a new chapter in the mourning for the martyrdom of the Master of the Martytrs. It proved to be so effective that Sunni historians named that year as the 'Year of Bid'ah'. As the years passed the number of this group increased.
It was "azaadaari" which gradually shook the foundations of Abbasid rule. Early examples of these elegiac poems have been recorded from the beginning of the second century, but without doubt they began to be composed a little after the event of Karbala, although they have not reached us. We find some samples of verses composed by our country's poets dating from before the eighth century, but since the tenth century we find hardly any poet who has not expressed his devotion to the Prophet's Household by composing a marthiyah. It was these mourning ceremonies and the marthiyaha that brought new groups every year into the fold of Shi'ism. In many of the cities of the cities of the Indian subcontinent and some Muslim lands, it was the ta'ziyah and the recitation of elegies that first drew the hearts towards Husayn. It was only afterwards that they embraced the Imamate of his father and the descendants of Husayn. This is how it is today, and, God willing, it will continue to be so.
This paper focuses on the revolt of Hadrat Abu' Abd Allah (A) which later brought about socio-historical transformations. After Islam became the predominant religion, the Umayyad House (Bani Umayyads) emerged as the ones with the deepest hatred against the Prophet of Islam (S). After the conquest of Mecca, they had converted to Islam without truly believing in it. But their words and conducts later showed that they never believed in the religion and in the Unseen (Ghayb) and that they always planned to avenge their defeats in Badr and Hunayn.
The first part of the paper focuses on the relationship between Umayyad House and Islam. This part deals with the relationship between Mu'awiyah and the government as well as the relationship between Imam Husayn (A) and Yazid.
The second part deals with the uprising of the people in Medinah after the carnage in Karbala. I will then discuss the revolt of the people of Mecca under the leadership of Abdullah Ibn Zubayr. I will discuss in details the Movement of the Repentant (Harakat-e Tawwabin) as the first armed Shi'ah movement after the Martyrdom of the Master of Martyrs (A). The motto of the latter uprising was "O. Avengers of Husayn". It aimed to merely revenge the killing of Imam Husayn (A) and did not want to establish a government. This revolt paved the way for other subsequent revolts such as the revolts by Mukhtar Thaqafi, Zayd lbn Ali Al-Husayn (A), etc. The effects of this uprising can be seen in later events in the history of Shi'ism, including the Islamic Revolution of Iran.